Harar Jugol, historically known to the indigenous people as Harar-Gey or simply Gey, is a walled city located in eastern Ethiopia. Perched on a hilltop on the eastern flank of the Great Rift Valley, it serves as home to 226,000 souls. As a predominantly Muslim city in a heavily Christian country, it is one of the most unique, historically rich, and culturally distinctive cities in Africa.
Admittedly, when I first arrived, this place definitely felt different than the other Ethiopian cities I had visited on this 27-day tour. Harar possesses a quiet peace that can be felt but is difficult to articulate. It had strong flavors of Northern Africa, which can be attributed to its long history as a multicultural trading hub connecting Ethiopia, Arabia, Somalia, and the Indian Ocean routes.
Early origins
The exact year Harar was founded is unclear, but its beginnings can be traced to early Islamic settlement in eastern Ethiopia. It is believed that the original inhabitants were the Harla people, as Harar was part of the Harla Kingdom in the sixth century.
There is a more common belief that Qurayshi settlers founded the city in the late 7th century. The Arab and Persian traders arrived between the 7th and 10th centuries, bringing Islam to the region and establishing a walled trading town. By the 13th century, the Qurayshi had become wealthy merchants, dominating trade between the Indian Ocean, East Africa, and the Mediterranean. The tribe ran caravans to Gaza and Damascus in summer and to Yemen in winter.
The Qurayshi are an Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, including the Banu Hashim, from which Islam’s founder, the Prophet Muhammad, was born.
The Arrival of the Saints
Islam gained an even stronger foothold on the Harar plateau by the 10th–11th centuries CE via trade with Zeila (Somalia). During the 1200s, several of Harar’s “404 saints” settled or taught in the region.
The “404 saints” is not an actual count but refers collectively to Sufi scholars, teachers, jurists, mystics, and founders of Harar’s Islamic life. They include early missionaries who helped Islam take root in eastern Ethiopia, Sufi sheikhs, legal scholars (ʿulamaʾ) who shaped Harari religious law, and ascetics and miracle workers remembered through oral tradition.
The arrival of the patron saint of Harar, Aw Abadir (Abadir Umar al-Rida), is often placed in this period. He is credited with establishing the community’s early Islamic institutions. As a result of his contributions, the region became known as a center of religious learning.
It was during this period that Harar emerged as the spiritual heart of Islam in the Horn of Africa. Islam had been established as the predominant religion in the region, with Harar as a stronghold of Sufi traditions. The city had also become a major scholarly center and hub of Arabic and Harari manuscript production. During this period, Harar produced remarkable religious figures, and more than 80 mosques were founded, many of which are still standing. It was also during this time that the city began amassing wealth from caravan commerce.
Sufism is a mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic purification, spirituality, ritualism, and asceticism.
The Rise of the Adal Sultanate
Emperor Amda Seyon I (14th century) of Ethiopia significantly expanded his Christian kingdom by warring against neighboring Muslim sultanates, including those in the Harar region. A sultanate or emirate is a Muslim political system in which a hereditary ruler acts as the head of state. Seyon’s victories expanded the Empire’s territory and power, thereby temporarily reducing the threat from surrounding Muslim entities.
Despite facing immediate conflicts from rival leaders and suffering repeated losses at the hands of Emperor Seyon I, Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad of the Adal Sultanate was not deterred. He had his sights set on a higher prize. Although he was the official sultan, his title was merely nominal. Abu Bakr wanted power to match his title. In 1525, he orchestrated the death of his main nemesis, military commander Garad Abun Adish.
Garad is a term formerly used to refer to a king, sultan, or regional administrator of an Islamic state in the Horn of Africa. As Garad, Abun Adish was the de facto ruler of the Sultanate, controlling policing, tribal alliances, and commerce. He publicly challenged Abu Bakr’s decisions and withheld taxes, effectively emasculating the Sultan. One of Abu Bakr’s first acts after Adish’s death was to shift the capital of Adal from Dakkar (present-day Somaliland) to Harar. This shift officially established Harar as a strategic base for launching future counter-offensives.
The Sultan was the nominal head, but powerful Emirs (commanders) often held significant military and political authority.
The Rise of Ahmad Gragn
Abu Bakr had finally “arrived,” but his ill-gotten power would be short-lived. His authority was challenged by another rival, popular leader Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. Ahmad, also a military commander, rose up hell-bent on avenging the death of his cousin, Abun. Abu Bakr was no match for Ahmad and his forces, being killed in battle just one year after he had arranged the death of Abun. Justice served.
Instead of taking the Sultan title himself, in an ironic twist, Ahmad installed Umar Din, Abu Bakr’s brother, as a puppet sultan in 1526. Meanwhile, he began consolidating his own power behind the scenes and preparing for future Ethiopian conquests. By 1527, he was proclaimed imam, religious and military leader, of Adal.
Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi was also known as Ahmad Gragn (“the Left-handed”).
Ahmad regrouped and united various Muslim nomadic groups, primarily Somalian, into a cohesive force for a jihad (religious war) against Christian Ethiopia. This regrouping led to a highly successful invasion that brought Adal close to conquering the entire Ethiopian Empire.
The Ethiopian-Adal Wars (1529-1543)
The Ethiopian-Adal Wars were a devastating conflict between the Christian Ethiopian Empire and the Muslim Adal Sultanate. These wars were fueled by regional power struggles and involved European colonial rivalries (Portuguese vs. Ottomans).
The Ottomans
The Adal Sultanate actively sought and received significant military aid from the Ottoman Empire. Ahmad specifically requested troops, including Turkish, Albanian, and Arab musketeers. The request was made primarily because of the crucial assistance, in the form of firearms and soldiers, that Ethiopia was receiving from Portugal. Ahmad realized he needed equivalent or superior firepower and manpower to counter this. The Ottoman backing catapulted a regional conflict into a proxy war.
The Ottomans and the sultanate shared Islamic goals and a mutual desire to counter Portuguese expansion in the Horn of Africa and along the Red Sea. Harar served as a gateway to Muslim trade routes in Ethiopia’s interior, and supporting Abu Bakr ensured they had an ally in a strategic region.
The Portuguese
Portugal, motivated by religious zeal against Islamic expansion, political gain, and economic interests in Africa, had chosen to side with the Christians. Portugal, a strongly Catholic power, saw Ethiopia as a fellow Christian kingdom surrounded by increasingly hostile Muslim states.
Emperor Lebna Dengel (David II) had requested Portugal’s assistance several times in the 1520s to counter Muslim invasions. However, significant Portuguese aid did not arrive until 1541, one year after his death. The expedition that arrived numbered approximately 400 men. The long-awaited assistance came in the form of soldiers, weapons, and musketeers, which Lebna’s son and successor, Gelawdewos, gratefully received.
The expedition that arrived in 1541 numbered approximately 400 men, most of whom were musketeers (arquebusiers).
Early Adal Victories
The Adal forces, led by Imam Ahmad Gragn, waged significant warfare armed with Ottoman firearms, including matchlocks, arquebuses, and eventually cannons. These devices had not been used effectively in the region before, and they afforded them a significant advantage over the Ethiopian army.
Under Ahmad’s leadership, Adal swept into the highlands, sacked churches, and threatened the empire’s existence. They drove Emperor Lebna Dengel into exile and gained control of most of central Ethiopia by 1533. The conflict lasted for over a decade.
The Portuguese Turn the Tides
Portuguese soldiers under Cristóvão da Gama arrived in Ethiopia in 1541, instantly leveling the playing field. Before their arrival, Ethiopia had only knights and archers, no firearms. The Portuguese provided reinforcements and weapons matching those the Ottomans had provided the sultanate. This was the turning point in the battle. Portugal’s military prowess was decisive; not only did they provide weapons, but they also introduced European-style infantry tactics. These tactics were employed to show dominance over the Ottoman-trained Adal forces.
Unfortunately, da Gama was beheaded at the Battle of Wofla in 1542 after being captured and refusing to renounce his faith. The combined Ethiopian-Portuguese army went on to rout Adal at the Battle of Wayna Daga in 1543. Ahmad Gragn was killed in battle there by a Portuguese musketeer. Upon his death, his forces collapsed and retreated, with many Turkish soldiers killed and captured.
Ultimately, this loss of leadership and subsequent loss of territory devastated the sultanate, causing its decline and a shift in regional power. Facing constant internal disputes and a succession of short-lived rulers, the sultanate was unable to consolidate power, making it easy prey for external forces.
The sultanate was too newly established to transcend tribal differences without the leadership of Ahmad Gragn. This led to a power vacuum and internal disputes.
Rise of Nur ibn Mujahid
Gragn’s nephew, Nur ibn Mujahid, ascended to the position of Sultan of Harar. Like his uncle, he focused on consolidating power. He is known for building the defensive city walls and continuing the struggle against Ethiopia. After Ethiopia’s victory, Emperor Galawdewos began rebuilding the churches destroyed in the jihad, but faced continued Muslim resistance. Although Adal’s reign as a major power had ended, Nur’s continued raids and invasions into Ethiopian territories prevented the Empire from fully reasserting control over former Muslim areas.
Long-Term Impact
Even though Gragn’s unifying military power was gone, Harar remained an independent Muslim stronghold under Nur and subsequent rulers. The city also maintained a distinct identity (which continues today), and the historical rivalry with Christian Ethiopia continued.
Despite the constant warfare between 1520 and 1568, the city served as the capital of the Harari Kingdom in what has come to be known as “Harar’s Golden Age.” Local culture flourished, and the city became known for coffee production, weaving, basketry, and bookbinding. It also served as home to numerous poets. From the late 16th to the mid-19th century, Harar Jugol was an important trade center linking the coast and the interior highlands and served as a prime location for Islamic learning.
In the aftermath of the war, there were large-scale Oromo migrations from the south. The Oromo people are an indigenous Cushitic-speaking group originating from East Africa, specifically southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya. They are part of the Afroasiatic language family and have inhabited the Horn of Africa for over 2,000 years. Yes, the Oromo people still exist and are the largest ethnolinguistic group in Ethiopia, constituting over 40 million people.
The Oromo moved into the power vacuum left by the sultanate and occupied vast territories. These migrations effectively ended Adal’s regional superiority and confined its remnants to the walled city of Harar and its immediate environs.
Construction of the Wall – Harar Jugol (1567)
In 1567, Emir Nur ibn Mujahid completed the iconic Jugol wall, enclosing the old city with five gates (each symbolizing a historic neighborhood). Jugol remains one of the best-preserved ancient city walls in Africa, earning it a UNESCO World Heritage designation.
The wall’s design reflects Islamic principles. According to local tradition, the wall’s length is 6,666 cubits, a number intended to match the traditional total number of verses in the Quran. The five original gates represent the five pillars of Islam.
Mujahid commissioned the project in 1559 as a “defensive shield” to protect the city’s inhabitants from external threats. The wall, measuring 15 feet in height and 2.25 miles in length, was constructed from a porous local limestone known as hashiune and bonded together by mud and wood. Five gates provide access to the city: Shoa, Fallana, Erer, Buda, and Sanga. In 1889, a sixth gate, Harar, was added by Ras Makonnen, the first Duke of Harar.
This chart shows the gate names in both Harari and Amharic, their direction, and their significance.
| Harari Name | Amharic Name | Direction | Significance |
| Asm-addin Bari | Shoa Gate | West | The main entrance and “Gate of Victory” |
| Assum Bari | Fallana Gate | North | Historically associated with the way to the coast. |
| Argob Bari | Erer Gate | East | Named for the Argobba people who entered the city here. |
| Badri Bari | Buda Gate | South | “Gate of the Wise” is also known as Babul-Hakim. |
| Suqutat Bari | Sanga Gate | South East | “Gate of Peace” is located near farmland and water streams. |
Key Reasons for Building the Wall
Following the devastating Ethiopian-Adal War, Harar needed stronger defenses against several threats. The wealthy Muslim city found itself surrounded by rivals threatening its faith, identity, and trade.
There was the ongoing conflict with Christian forces from the highlands. The Oromo people were settling the surrounding lands and repeatedly attacking and plundering the countryside. This created instability and famine throughout the city. With dozens of mosques and learning institutions, Harar was the last stronghold of the Adal elite, scholars, and military families. The wall was crucial in establishing the city’s independence and maintaining its political autonomy.
The wall defined the core (Jugol) of the city and served as a crucial barrier to safeguard its residents, religious sites, and vital trade routes. As a major trading hub, Harar linked the Ethiopian interior with the Red Sea ports. Enclosing the city enabled leaders to regulate access, collect taxes and customs, and protect markets, caravans, and stored goods. The fortification also provided defense, watch points, and controlled entry through guarded gates.
Harar survived the collapse of Adal due to its fortification, religious prestige, political cohesion of clans under Islamic rule, and merchant economy linking the Ethiopian highlands, Oromo regions, and Somali ports.
Independent Emirate of Harar
By the 1580s, Harar was run by hereditary emirs. The Emirate of Harar formally emerged in the mid-1600s when its rulers exercised full sovereignty. Ali ibn Da’ud is recognized as the founder of the hereditary emirate. For over 200 years, the emirs maintained independence through diplomacy and trade. During this period, Harar continued extensive trade with Arabia via the Indian Ocean and the Somali coast. Harari culture, architecture, and language spread, and the coffee trade began to flourish. The prosperity of Harar, including its favorable location, did not go unnoticed by one of its neighbors.
During this era, Harar earned nicknames such as: “The City of Saints” (for its shrines and scholars), and “The Fourth Holy City of Islam” (after Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem).
Invasion by Egypt
The Egyptian invasion of Harar was a military campaign conducted by Khedive Isma’il Pasha in 1875. The ruling Emirate was swiftly deposed and executed, and Muhammad Ra’uf Pasha (no relation) was installed as governor. Egypt would maintain direct administrative control over the city and its hinterland until 1885. Egyptian forces, leveraging superior artillery and organization, encountered limited organized resistance from Harar’s Oromo and Somali allies as the occupation exacerbated tribal conflicts and eroded indigenous institutions in the surrounding areas.
Why Invade Harar?
The invasion reflected Egypt’s modernization-driven imperialism, which aimed to supplant Harar’s traditional Islamic governance with Western-influenced institutions. New taxation systems, urban infrastructure, education reforms, and legal codes were installed; however, the Egyptians did not eliminate all Harari systems. Sharia courts and religious scholars were allowed to remain as they supported civil law. Harari traders continued to operate regional trade routes. City elders continued to handle community disputes and neighborhood affairs.
By 1878, Harar was fully incorporated into the Red Sea administration, attracting European explorers and traders for the first time but straining resources amid ongoing Somali raids. The occupation concluded in 1885 when Britain, following its conquest of Egypt in 1882 (amid the Mahdist uprising), compelled Egypt to withdraw from Harar. This move facilitated the consolidation of control over Cairo’s dependencies, but left a power vacuum briefly filled by local Amir Abdallahi. Ethiopian forces under Menelik II regained control over Harar in 1887.
The Ethiopian Empire, on the brink of collapse, once again secured military assistance from the Portuguese under Menelik II and regained control over Harar in 1887.
Post-Egypt Harar
After the conquest, Menelik did not destroy Harar, dismantle its urban structure, or restore its independent emirate. Instead, he designated it a regional seat of imperial government and power. Additionally, despite Ethiopia being a Christian empire, Harar remained a major center for Islamic teaching.
Harar was allowed a limited form of local governance under imperial authority. Under this new structure, Menelik appointed Ras Makonnen Wolde Mikael, Haile Selassie’s father, governor in 1887. During Makonnen’s 15-year rule, new systems were introduced, and tribute and land taxes were paid to the imperial court. Garrisons of Ethiopian soldiers provided protection and stability, and Amharic became the administrative language.
Shifting trade importance
Because Harar remained economically important, the state avoided disrupting trade too much. Despite adopting a largely “hands-off” approach, trade networks gradually shifted toward the French port of Djibouti in the late 19th century. The shift was mainly due to the development of the colonial port and changes in transportation. Later, the Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway (1897–1917) further reduced Harar’s centrality and importance by bypassing the city entirely. As a result, Harar declined slightly as a caravan hub but remained a strong regional market. Ironically, Menelik II supported the railway and the Djibouti connection as it allowed goods to move more quickly and cheaply. This route also provided direct access to global trade and reduced dependence on British-controlled Somali ports. It was also an easier way to export Ethiopian coffee and hides.
Islam and Christianity co-existed
Although Ethiopia was an overwhelmingly Christian empire, Harar remained a major Islamic center, mosques continued to function, and Islamic scholarship continued.
Ras Makonnen was known as a pragmatic ruler. He protected Harar’s trade networks, allowed Muslims to continue practicing Islam openly, and
Islamic institutions were largely preserved. While Christian institutions did appear (Orthodox churches were built for imperial soldiers and officials), the Ethiopian government did not attempt to forcibly Christianize Harar. Muslim Harari residents, mosques, and shrines remained inside the old walled city. Ethiopian Christian soldiers and administrators, markets, and imperial buildings were placed outside the walls. This pattern lasted well into the 20th century.
Why the System Worked
Several factors allowed this form of coexistence between the two religions. As the major trade center linking Ethiopia to the Red Sea, Harar survived due to economic necessity. Both entities wanted stability and revenue versus religious conflict. Harari elites retained autonomy and influence in community affairs despite being ruled by Christian officials.
In a broad sense, the coexistence still exists today, but the imperial structure that created it is no longer in place. The old system, where Christians ruled politically over a Muslim city, ended with the collapse of the Ethiopian monarchy in 1974. Ethiopia later adopted a secular federal system where both religions were allowed to practice openly under a modern constitution.
The Derg period (1974–1991): upheaval and decline
When Emperor Haile Selassie was overthrown in 1974, Ethiopia entered a very different phase – one marked by revolution, socialism, and cultural change. The military regime known as the Derg took power in September of that year. Under Derg control, Harare elite (specialized merchants and high-ranking religious leaders) lost political and economic power. Property was nationalized, and private homes and businesses were seized or redistributed.
Interesting Fact: Emperor Haile Selassie hailed from Harar.
Clearly, Harar was no longer the sphere of influence it had once been. Trade routes had shifted toward Djibouti in the 19th century, leading to economic woes in the formerly tremendously affluent city. The Derg’s centralized control brought conflict, which only added to Harar’s economic stagnation. This stagnation, in turn, led to urban neglect. The historic old city began to deteriorate due to a lack of maintenance and resources.
The Ogaden War (Ethio-Somali War)
As if life wasn’t harsh enough, open conflict soon descended upon the area. The Ogaden War (1977-78) was a major conflict between Somalia and Ethiopia. The source of dispute? A vast, arid region in eastern Ethiopia, largely populated by Somalis.
Somali Claim
The President of Somalia, Mohamed Siad Barre, dreamed of a Somali state and felt the Ogaden region was a fit culturally and linguistically. There was only one problem: Ethiopia. The region had long been contested between Somali clans and Ethiopian empires. Siad Barre argued that the modern borders were shaped by agreements between Britain and Ethiopia, not local populations who actually lived there. As far as he was concerned, the land was rightfully Somalia’s, and he was justified in reclaiming the territory.
After gaining independence from Britain and Italy in 1960, Siad Barre promoted the idea of “Greater Somalia”—uniting all Somali-inhabited lands (including parts of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti).
Abyssinian View
Ethiopia’s view of the Ogaden was the mirror opposite of Siad Barre’s vision. From their purview, the region was an inseparable part of the Ethiopian state. It was a legally recognized part of Ethiopia protected under post-colonial African norms. Post-colonial African nations adopted the principle of uti possidetis juris (as you possess under law), which states that colonial-era borders cannot be changed.
The Ogaden had been under Ethiopia’s influence or direct control since the 1890s. Although the British briefly occupied the land during WWII, it was returned to Ethiopian control in 1948. In Ethiopia’s eyes, this also counted as a nod, solidifying their ownership rights. So, from their perspective, Somalia wasn’t “reclaiming land” – Barre’s intent was viewed as an act of aggression and a threat to sovereignty.
Somali forces captured 90% of the Ogaden between July and September 1977. The Somalis launched a conventional invasion using a superior, Soviet-equipped army. They likely would have achieved a “Greater Somalia” had their ally, the Soviet Union, not betrayed them. The Soviets began supporting Somalia shortly after the nation gained independence in 1961. The Russians provided military training and loans to modernize the Somali National Army, as the nation was considered a major military partner (for a while).
Soviet Betrayal
The Soviets shifted support from Somalia to Ethiopia in late 1977. This was primarily because Ethiopia’s new Marxist government, led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, was deemed a more reliable and ideologically aligned partner. Similar to Barre’s dreams of a “Greater Somalia,” Russia’s Leonid Brezhnev dreamt of a socialist federation in the Horn of Africa. Russia disapproved of Somalia’s invasion of Ethiopia because it had earmarked that nation as a conduit for spreading Marxism in Africa. Ultimately, Russia chose to support a larger, more strategic nation over its former comrade.
As Russia’s allegiance shifted, massive support and weapons flowed into Ethiopia, including 15,000 troops from Cuba. By March of 1978, Somali forces had been driven out of the Ogaden. The aftermath saw the beginning of a long period of internal collapse in Somalia, culminating in a complete breakdown of the central government years later. Ethiopia, on the other hand, reinforced its control over the region.
Post-Derg Ethiopia
When the Derg collapsed in 1991, it triggered a complete and structural transformation of Ethiopia, reshaping the entire Horn of Africa. One of the most notable changes was the start of ethnic federalism. The nation was reorganized into ethnic-based regions, each with regional autonomy. This design was intended to reduce ethnic conflict by preventing domination by a single group. While this was a great concept, it created new tensions, which have endured.
Somalia was already collapsing into civil war after the fall of Siad Barre (also in 1991). The region became more fragmented and unstable, not less, under Ethiopia’s new structure.
Post-Derg impact on Harar
Harar was designated the capital of the Harari National Regional State, one of Ethiopia’s smallest regions. The Harari people, though a minority in the city, were constitutionally guaranteed political power and cultural recognition. However, they share power with the Oromo majority. The duties of the regional state emphasize preservation of the Harari language and traditions, religious sites, and architectural heritage.
World Heritage Designation
In 2006, the old walled city of Jugol was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Recognized for its exceptional cultural and historical value, Harar was acknowledged as one of the most important Islamic cities in Africa.
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