Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. Bordered by Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, and South Sudan, Ethiopia is in a class by itself.
Size
Ethiopia is the tenth largest nation on the African continent, covering a land area of 1,104,300 square kilometers (426,400 sq mi). As of 2024, it is home to approximately 132 million inhabitants, making it the tenth most populous country in the world. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa behind Nigeria, and the most populated landlocked country on the planet. The national capital and largest city, Addis Ababa, lies several kilometers west of the East African Rift. The East African Rift splits the country across the African and Somali tectonic plates.
History
Ethiopian civilization dates back thousands of years. In fact, Ethiopia is one of the oldest countries in Africa. Originally called Abyssinia or “Ze Etiyopia”, the nation was ruled by the Semitic Abyssinians (Habesha) composed mainly of the Amhara, Tigrayans, and the Cushitic Agaw.
“Lucy” and “Ardi”
Anatomically modern humans emerged from modern-day Ethiopia in the Middle Paleolithic period. The fossil of an Australopithecus afarensis hominin named “Lucy” was discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. At 3.18 million years old, Lucy is one of the oldest and most complete early human ancestors ever found. Southwestern Ethiopia has been proposed as a possible homeland of the Afroasiatic language family. In 1994, an even older fossil was found in the same region. “Ardi” was dated at 4.4 million years old.
Ethiopia was historically known as Abyssinia, which comes from the Arabic form of the Ethio-semitic name Habesha.
The earliest mention of the term “Ethiopia” is found in the works of Homer, where it was used to refer to two groups of people, one in Africa and one in the eastern Turkey and India regions. In ancient times, Ethiopia was primarily used to refer to the modern-day nation of Sudan, also called Kush.
The word “Aithiopia” (Aethiopia) is Greek in origin and is a compound of the words aithō, meaning “I burn”, and ṓps, meaning “face”. It was used to describe darker-skinned African populations, particularly those in Nubia, now the region known as Sudan or Kush.
Read more about Ethiopia in my previous post:
The History of Ethiopia – Part I
The History of Ethiopia – Part III
This story resumes with the reign of Emperor Yohannes IV
The reign of Emperor Yohannes IV (1871-1889)
There is not much information on the formative years of Yohannes IV. He was born Lij Kahssai “Kassa” Mercha in 1837 in Tigray. The first mention of him in the political arena is his visit to the court of Emperor Tewodros II somewhere around 1864-1865. In this reference, Kassa and his brothers were conferred official titles and administrative districts to manage in Tigray. Shortly after returning home, Kassa rebelled against Tewodros’ rule and embarked on military campaigns. What prompted his rebellion remains unknown.
Rise to Power
King of Tigray 1869-1871
Kassa went on a rampage in the highlands, defeating the leaders of neighboring regions and assuming their titles. He gained significant military power, ultimately taking control of Tigray through strategic battles and alliances.
In February of 1868, he was approached by the leader of the British expedition sent to free captives imprisoned by Tewodros. After three rounds of discussions, Kassa agreed to assist them. By the Brits’ own admission, Kassa was instrumental in their victory against Tewodros, which concluded with the Emperor’s suicide at Magdala.
In return for his “assistance,” he was rewarded with ammunition and artillery valued at 500,000 pounds. In addition to the arsenal he received from the British, an instructor agreed to remain in Ethiopia to conduct training. This combination of modern weapons and formal training proved quite useful in his future fight against Tekle Giyorgis for control of Ethiopia.
Upon the death of Tewodros, the Shewans he had imprisoned in his mountain stronghold, Amba Magdala, were released. One Shewan, Ras Darge, a young Negus of Shewa, attempted a few military campaigns in the north, desiring to establish himself. However, his efforts were fruitless as Kassa had already established tight control of the region and assumed the role of King. Kassa served as King of Tigray for two years before setting his sights on a larger prize.
The Echage served as the principal head of monasteries and churches in Ethiopia.
The Road to the Throne
According to historical records, Kassa never acknowledged the reign of Tewodros II’s successor, Tekle Giyorgis II. He refused to submit to the Emperor’s authority, refused to pay tribute, and refused to be named a Ras. The ensuing power struggle between the two leaders led to warfare in 1871.
Leading up to the battle, Giyorgis attempted to bolster his troops by convincing Menelik II, King of Shewa, to join forces with him against Kassa, the King of Tigray. Menelik declined the “invitation”, preferring to be a spectator instead of a participant as his two rivals battled it out.
In June of 1871, the two armies clashed near the Assem River in Adwa. While outnumbered 12,000 to 60,000, Kassa’s army routed Giyorgis’ troops. At the end of the battle, the emperor and 40% of his men had been captured. It should be noted that Kassa’s men entered the fray with a distinct technical advantage. They had more modern weaponry and were better trained, thanks to their interactions with the British in 1868. Six months later, Kassa became the new emperor of Ethiopia under the name Yohannes IV.
Giyorgis II was imprisoned in a monastery near Adwa and blinded to prevent him from escaping and regaining the throne.
The reign
The reign of Yohannes IV marked the restoration of order and a strong monarchy after an extended period of instability. The Emperor was credited with unifying Ethiopia through religious reforms and education and successfully defended the nation against foreign powers like Egypt and Sudan.
Christianity
Yohannes II inherited an empire encumbered with three religious questions that provoked him to seek solutions: the internal dissensions of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOC), Islam, and Christian foreign missionary activities. He regarded all of them as menaces to the unity and stability of the nation. He considered Islam a particular hindrance and worked to solidify Christian dominance in the region. It is estimated that by 1880, 50,000 Jebertis (Tigrinya-speaking Muslims) and 500,000 Oromos had been forced to convert to Christianity from Islam.
Promotion of Education
Yohannes IV recognized the importance of education and encouraged the establishment of schools in various parts of Ethiopia, including Tigray. He also encouraged the education of both sexes, not just males.
Love-Hate Relationship with Sahle Maryam (Menelik II)
Sahle Maryam was a member of a powerful dynasty called the Royal Family of Shewa. As mentioned in my previous post (The History of Ethiopia – Part I), Emperor Tewodros imprisoned the entire Shewan dynastic line in 1855 to safeguard his reign. When Maryam escaped from the emperor’s mountain stronghold in 1865, he returned to Shewa, where he was crowned Negus or King.
When Maryam reclaimed his ancestral Shewan crown, he also laid claim to the Imperial throne as a direct descendant of Emperor Dawit II. However, Maryam was a patient man, making no overt attempts to claim the throne, preferring instead to bide his time.
The struggle for power
While Maryam operated autonomously in Shewa, he acknowledged Yohannes IV as the Emperor, renouncing any imperial ambitions. The relationship between the two leaders was maintained through carefully negotiated agreements and mutual exchanges of support. While outwardly pledging allegiance to Yohannes IV, Maryam was strategically expanding his power base in Shewa, neatly setting the stage for his future ascension.
Despite a period of relative peace, their relationship became increasingly strained due to power struggles and political maneuvering. Particularly problematic was the King’s consolidation of power in the south while the Emperor was busy defending the northern borders against external threats. With his sights set on the throne, Menelik even made an agreement with the Italians in 1888 to secure arms, fearing that Yohannes’ son might try to succeed his father and become emperor.
This same treaty, the Treaty of Wuchale, ultimately led to tensions with the Italians due to a discrepancy in the Amharic and Italian translations, more on this later.
Military Campaigns
Yohannes IV was a skilled military leader, successfully defending the country against foreign powers like Egypt and the Mahdists of Sudan.
Egypt
Khedive Isma’il Pasha of Egypt sought to bring the entire Nile River basin under his rule. Understanding the ongoing dynamic between Yohannes IV and Menelik of Shewa, he tried to woo Menelik to his side. Once again, Menelik declined to engage against Yohannes.
When the Egyptians marched into northern Ethiopia in 1875, Yohannes pleaded with the British to stop their Egyptian allies. The Brits turned a deaf ear to his pleas, so Yohannes marched to meet force with force. Strategically, the Ethiopians outmaneuvered the Egyptians and decimated the entire army.
Sudan
In 1889, the Ethiopian forces battled the Mahdist Sudanese in the Battle of Gallabat. The Mahdists were a group of Sudanese Muslim revolutionaries led by Muhammad Ahmad who went to war with Egypt. Egypt controlled the Sudanese territory and oppressed the people with high taxes, slavery, and a disregard for the Islamic religion. Needless to say, this all led to widespread resentment among the Sudanese population against their Egyptian rulers. The Mahdists aimed to establish a pure Islamic state in Sudan by overthrowing Egyptian control.
After a rebellion by Mahdist forces, many Egyptian garrisons found themselves isolated in Sudan. As a result, the British, who had taken over the government of Egypt, negotiated the Treaty of Adowa with Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia in 1884. Under the treaty, the garrisons would be allowed to escape Sudan through Ethiopian territory. Upon learning of Ethiopia’s “treachery”, Khalifa Muhammad Ahmad considered the Ethiopians his enemies and sent his forces to attack them.
Interesting Fact: when Yohannes IV was killed, he had intended to attack Maryam after a campaign against the Sudanese Mahdists.
The death of Emperor Yohannes IV
In March of 1889, Yohannes’ army of 150,000 met the Sudanese army of 85,000. The Ethiopians once again showed their military dominance, but this time Emperor Yohannes was slain in battle. The Ethiopian army had almost annihilated the Sudanese in this battle but became demoralized upon hearing their ruler had been killed.
The troops retrieved the Emperor’s body and retreated but were overtaken by Sudanese forces. The Mahdists inflicted heavy losses on the Ethiopians near the Atbara River and captured the Emperor’s body. The head of the dead Emperor was taken to Omdurman as a trophy.
The reign of Menelik II (1889-1913)
Upon hearing of the death of Yohannes in March of 1889, Maryam immediately proclaimed himself Emperor, assuming the name Menelik II. He claimed the throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, the son of Emperor Yohannes IV.
Menelik assumed the throne in March and entered into an agreement in May that would ultimately see the nation plunged into war with a foreign entity, Italy.
How did the Italians end up in Ethiopia in the first place?
In March 1870, an Italian company, Rubattino Shipping, purchased the Red Sea port of Asseb in Eritrea from a local sultan. The company, in true colonizer fashion, began to gobble up land until it was bought out by the Italian government in 1882. The Italian government was enticed by the possibility of developing the port to gain further access to inland Ethiopia.
Eritrea was considered part of the Ethiopian empire before being colonized by Italy.
To protect the Italian government’s interest, Count Pietro Antonelli was dispatched there in hopes of improving relations with Kassa, the King of Shewa. The fact that the Italians approached Kassa instead of the sitting emperor, Yohannes IV, is a testament to the power the Shewan king possessed.
In April 1888, the Italian forces, numbering over 20,000 men, came in contact with the Ethiopian army. Fortunately for them, negotiations took place instead of fighting. After the discussions, the Italians left a contingent of 5,000 troops stationed in Eritrea. In the disorder that followed the death of Yohannes IV in 1889, the Italians occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast. It was undeniable that the Italians had their sights set on expanding into Ethiopia.
The Treaty of Wuchale
Emperor Menelik II signed the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy in May 1889. The intent was that the treaty would secure Ethiopia’s independence by acknowledging Italy’s claims over the neighboring territory of Eritrea. On January 1, 1890, Eritrea would be officially recognized as an Italian colony. Additionally, it guaranteed financial and military assistance from Italy, as needed. This strategy led to conflict when Italy used the treaty to assert a protectorate over Ethiopia, an assertion that would ultimately lead to war.
When the treaty was signed, European colonization of Africa was expanding exponentially. Vast territories of Eritrea and Somalia, Ethiopian border countries, were under Italian occupation. It was clear that Italy desired to expand its territories by colonizing the entire nation. Emperor Menelik II was highly resistant to this and agreed to establish a treaty instead. He agreed to yield some Ethiopian territories to Italy in return for assurance of Ethiopia’s independence (or so he thought), as well as financial and military assistance as needed.
The Italians’ deception
Two versions of the Treaty of Wuchale were drafted, one in Italian and one in Amharic. Unbeknownst to Menelik, the Italian version stated that Ethiopia was obligated to conduct all foreign affairs through the Italian authorities. This effectively made Ethiopia an Italian protectorate. The Amharic version ensured Ethiopia’s autonomy, stating Italy could be used in the interest of foreign relations with other nations.
The Italians believed they had “tricked” Menelik and now controlled not only Eritrea but all of Ethiopia. To their surprise, Menelik was not intimidated by them and disregarded the treaty entirely.
The Italians claimed that Article XVII of the treaty stated Ethiopia was under Italian protection, while the Amharic version stated Ethiopia could use Italy for foreign relations.
In response to Menelik’s rejection, the Italians ramped up pressure on the nation in 1893. They annexed small territories bordering Eritrea and led a military campaign into Tigray in 1894. The Italians expected disaffected potentates like Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam and Ras Mengesha Yohannes to join their ranks. Instead, the Ethiopian leaders joined Emperor Menelik in an unprecedented display of nationalism and anti-Italian sentiment.
Support from Russia
Realizing war with Italy was imminent, Menelik II sought help from Russia. The Ethiopian emperor sent his first diplomatic mission to St. Petersburg in 1895. Russia was an attractive potential ally for two reasons. First, the two nations shared the same Orthodox Christian faith, and second, Russia had its own history of resisting Western imperialism. By providing arms and ammunition, Russia significantly bolstered Ethiopia’s defense capabilities against Italy.
Russia, unlike most European powers, did not seek to colonize Ethiopia. The Russians viewed supporting Menelik II against Italian aggression as a way to counter European imperialism in Africa.
Ultimately, Russia, France, and Britain helped Ethiopia against Italy. This was primarily due to shared geopolitical interests, anti-colonial sentiment, and the desire to counter Italian expansionism in Africa. Menelik had spent much of his reign building up a vast arsenal of modern weapons and ammunition acquired through treaty negotiations and purchases from these nations. Ironically, under the treaty of Wuchale, even Italy had provided Ethiopia with rifles and artillery.
First Italo-Abyssinian War (1889-1896)
Full-scale war broke out in 1895, with Italian troops from Eritrea achieving initial successes early in the battle. However, this was short-lived as the Ethiopian army decimated the Italian soldiers and Eritrean askaris in the Battle of Adwa in 1896. The war concluded with the Treaty of Addis Ababa, which formally recognized Ethiopia as an independent country. It also ended Italy’s claim as a protectorate and abrogated the Treaty of Wuchale.
The impact
The victory established Ethiopia as a political force and led to the recognition of Ethiopia’s independence by European powers. It also significantly impacted the Scramble for Africa by demonstrating that a non-European power could successfully resist colonization. This inspired anti-colonial movements across the continent.
The Scramble for Africa was an era where several foreign powers had interests and designs on colonizing Ethiopia. Ethiopia remains the only African nation not colonized by European powers.
Emperor Menelik II gained significant international credibility following the victory, allowing him to negotiate favorable borders for Ethiopia with other European powers.
Key Achievements
Modernization
Emperor Menelik II’s reign significantly Westernized Ethiopia by introducing modern technologies like roads, telegraphs, and a postal system. He established the first Cabinet of Ministers, founded the Bank of Abyssinia, and expanded education. Investments were made in building modern roads, bridges, and railroads and connecting the new capital, Addis Ababa, to other regions to facilitate trade.
Diplomatic agreements
Emperor Menelik ratified friendship treaties with the British, French, and Germans and a commercial relations treaty with the United States. He also established diplomatic ties with Russia, Sudan, and the Ottoman Empire.
Slavery and Genocide
Menelik’s first battles to expand the empire occurred during the 1870s when he was still under the nominal authority of Emperor Yohannes IV. These expansions coincided with the era of European colonial advances in the Horn of Africa. Following the Battle of Adwa in 1896, Emperor Menelik II significantly expanded Ethiopia’s territory, primarily to the south and east. As the Abyssinian armies advanced, they occupied land inhabited by the Oromo people.
The expansionist policies often resulted in the enslavement of large numbers of Oromo through raids and conquests. Slavery was the tool of choice when subjugating new populations, but the Ethiopian army took it a step further. They carried out genocidal mass atrocities in the south, including mass mutilation, mass killings, and large-scale slavery. Some estimates for the number of people killed during the conquests are in the millions. Ironically, this all occurred despite public pronouncements against slavery.
Ironically, Emperor Menelik was actively participating in enslaving the Oromo people during his territorial expansion while attempting to curb the slave trade on a large scale throughout Ethiopia.
Interim leaders
When Emperor Menelik II died, his grandson, Lij Iyasu, served as the designated but uncrowned emperor of Ethiopia from 1913 to 1916. Iyasu had a reputation for scandalous and disrespectful behavior. Additionally, his flirtation with Islam was considered treasonous among the Christian leadership of the empire. In other words, he was guilty of “behavior unbecoming” an emperor. He was deposed in 1916 by the Christian nobility, and Menelik’s daughter, Zewditu, was installed as empress.
In the power arrangement that followed, Zewditu’s cousin, Lij Tafari Makonnen, was elevated to the status of Regent Plenipotentiary in September of 1916. Makonnen officially became the de facto ruler of the empire under the name Ras Tafari Makonnen in February of 1917.
Read more about Ethiopia in my final post in this series: The History of Ethiopia – Part III
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