Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. Bordered by Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, and South Sudan, Ethiopia is in a class by itself.
Size
Ethiopia is the tenth largest nation on the African continent, covering a land area of 1,104,300 square kilometers (426,400 sq mi). As of 2024, it is home to approximately 132 million inhabitants, making it the tenth most populous country in the world. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa behind Nigeria, and the most populated landlocked country on the planet. The national capital and largest city, Addis Ababa, lies several kilometers west of the East African Rift. The East African Rift splits the country across the African and Somali tectonic plates.
History
Ethiopian civilization dates back thousands of years. In fact, Ethiopia is one of the oldest countries in Africa. Originally called Abyssinia or “Ze Etiyopia” the nation was ruled by the Semitic Abyssinians (Habesha) composed mainly of the Amhara, Tigrayans, and the Cushitic Agaw.
“Lucy” and “Ardi”
Anatomically modern humans emerged from modern-day Ethiopia in the Middle Paleolithic period. The fossil of an Australopithecus afarensis hominin named “Lucy” was discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. At 3.18 million years old, Lucy is one of the oldest and most complete early human ancestors ever found. In 1994, an even older fossil was found in the same region. “Ardi” was dated at 4.4 million years old.
Ethiopia was historically known as Abyssinia, which comes from the Arabic form of the Ethio-semitic name Habesha.
The earliest mention of the term “Ethiopia” is found in the works of Homer, where it was used to refer to two groups of people, one in Africa and one in the eastern Turkey and India regions. In ancient times, Ethiopia was primarily used to refer to the modern-day nation of Sudan, also called Kush.
The word “Aithiopia” (Aethiopia) is Greek in origin and is a compound of the words aithō, meaning “I burn”, and ṓps, meaning “face”. It was used to describe darker-skinned African populations, particularly those in Nubia, now the region known as Sudan or Kush.
Languages
Ethiopia is home to more than 80 distinct languages, representing a rich and diverse linguistic landscape. The languages can be classified into four major families: Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic, and Nilo-Saharan. However, across the families, only five dialects are recognized as official: Oromo, Amharic, Somali, Afar, and Tigrinya. 36 million Ethiopians speak Oromo, 32 million speak Amharic, 6.7 million speak Somali, and 6.4 million speak Tigrinya. Of the five official languages, Tigrinya has incorporated the most Italian words due to the Italian occupation during World War II.
The First Kingdoms – The Rise of Aksum (Axum)
One of the first kingdoms to rise to power in the territory was the kingdom of D’mt in the 10th century BC at Yeha. In the first century AD, the Kingdom of Aksum (Axum) rose to power in the modern Tigray region. The capital at Axum grew into a major power on the Red Sea and was listed with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of the time.
The introduction of Christianity
Christianity was introduced in the early 4th century, by Frumentius, a Phoenician Christian missionary and the first bishop of Axum. Frumentius converted Ezana, the ruler of Axum (320-360 AD), who then established Christianity as the official religion. Frumentius is also known as Abuna (“Our Father”) and Aba Salama (“Father of Peace”).
Interesting Fact: as a boy, Frumentius and his brother became slaves to the King of Axum – the same king he later converted.
Toward the end of the 5th century CE, a group of monks known as the Nine Saints are believed to have established themselves in the country. They fueled the spread of Christianity in Ethiopia by establishing numerous churches, including Abuna Yemata Guh (also known as the Chapel in the Sky). As a result, monasticism has been a force among the people and has greatly influenced events.
The decline of Axum
Not long after Christianity was established, the Axumite empire began to decline with the simultaneous rise of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. Lacking a detailed history, the demise of the Axumite Kingdom is a mystery subject to numerous speculations. It has been attributed to persistent drought, overgrazing, deforestation, a plague, a shift in trade routes that reduced the importance of the Red Sea—or a combination of all these factors.
Although Axum had declined in Ethiopia, it was recorded as controlling part, if not all, of Yemen in the 6th century CE. Around 523 CE, the Jewish king Dhu Nuwas came to power in Yemen and began a pogrom against Christians. He attacked an Axumite garrison at Zafar in Yemen and burned all the city’s churches. He then attacked the Christian stronghold of Najran, slaughtering any Christians who refused to convert to Judaism.
Kaleb, the new king of Axum, invaded Yemen around 520, killed Dhu Nuwas, routed his troops, and installed a Christian, Sumyafa Ashwa, as viceroy. As a result of his protection of the Christians, Kaleb is known as Saint Elesbaan.
After this point, information about Axum becomes extremely scarce, to the point of running silent. However, we do know that the Axumites were replaced by the Zagwe dynasty in the late 10th century.
The Zagwe dynasty
Exactly when the new dynasty came to power is unknown, as is the number of kings that comprised it. The new Zagwe dynasty established its capital at Roha (also called Adefa), where they built a series of monolithic churches. These structures have traditionally been credited to King Gebre Mesqel Lalibela, with the city being renamed Lalibela in his honor. In reality, archaeology reveals some structures were built between the 10th and early 12th centuries AD, preceding his reign. Only the last structures built in the 13th century coincide with Lalibela’s rule.
The building of rock-hewn churches, which first appeared in the late Axumite era and continued into the Solomonic dynasty, peaked under the Zagwe. It is believed the Zagwe had a more theocratic society than the Axumites as three kings from this period were canonized as saints with one possibly being an ordained priest.
Jerusalem freed from the Crusaders
Jerusalem had been captured in 1099 by Christian knights from Europe who proceeded to massacre the city’s Muslim and Jewish population. One of the greatest Muslim generals, Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (Saladin) freed Jerusalem from the Crusaders and brought it under Muslim rule in 1187. Saladin opened Jerusalem allowing people from all religions to live and worship freely. He even invited Ethiopian monks to return and facilitated their return by exempting them from the pilgrim tax.
Saladin hailed from a Kurdish family and served as the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria. “Salah ad-Din” is an honorific epithet, meaning “Righteousness of the Faith”.
It is also believed King Lalibela ordered the construction of the legendary rock-hewn churches during this time. Lalibela would serve as an alternate pilgrimage site or “new Jerusalem” for Ethiopian Christians who could no longer travel to the Holy Land.
The Solomonic dynasty
The 13th century ushered in the Solomonic dynasty or House of Solomon. The Zagwe dynasty was overthrown by Yekuno Amlak in 1270. To legitimize his assumption of power, his successors claimed he was descended from the legendary King Menelik I.
King Menelik was the supposed son of the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Although this claimed ancestry gave the dynasty its name, there is no credible evidence that the dynasty was descended from Solomon or the Davidic line. The Solomonic dynasty remained in power until 1974 when its last emperor Haile Selassie was overthrown by a coup d’état.
The chief provinces of the dynasty became Tigray (northern), what is now Amhara (central), and Shewa (southern). During the early Solomonic period, Ethiopia underwent military reforms and imperial expansion, allowing it to dominate the Horn of Africa.
The kingship or title of “nəgusä nägäst” was based on the royal family’s alleged descent from Israel’s King Solomon and the Ethiopian Queen of Sheba.
There was great artistic and literary advancement in Ethiopia at this time. However, there was also a decline in urbanization as the Solomonic emperors didn’t reside in one location but favored ruling from mobile camps.
The reign of Emperor Amda Seyon I (1314-1344)
Amda Seyon I (throne name: Gebre Mesqel) was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1314 to 1344. He is also known as “The Pillar of the Cross” because most of the wars during his reign were against the Muslim sultanates to the southeast. Through his military conquests of Muslim borderlands, he was able to expand Christian territory and power in the region substantially.
Amda Seyon I is also known as “The Pillar of Zion” and “Servant of the Cross”
Under the early Solomonic dynasty, monasticism grew strongly. Abbot Abba Ewostatewos created a new order called the House of Ewostathians and called for reforms in the church, including observance of the Sabbath. He was persecuted for his efforts and eventually forced into exile, ultimately dying in Armenia. His zealous followers were also persecuted but formed isolated communities in Tigray.
The reign of Dawit I (1382-1413)
Emperor Dawit I was considered an enthusiastic Christian, he initially tried to crush the Ewostathian movement. As the movement grew stronger, Dawit was forced to acknowledge them, ultimately legalizing both their observance of the Sabbath and the sharing of their faith.
In 1380, Dawit initiated a campaign against Egypt in an attempt to assist Coptic Christians who he thought were being oppressed under Muslim rule. He viewed himself as the protector of Orthodox Christianity and the Copts.
The reign of Zara Yaqob (1434-1468)
Emperor Zara Yaqob (throne name: “Qostantinos I”) launched a strong campaign against survivors of pagan worship and “un-Christian practices” within the church. Those who admitted to worshipping pagan gods were publicly decapitated.
Relations with Europe and “Prester John”
Zara Yaqob sent delegates to the Council of Florence in 1441 and established ties with the Holy See and Western Christianity. The delegates were confused when council prelates insisted on calling their monarch “Prester John”. They tried to explain that this designation was nowhere in Zara Yaqob’s list of regnal names. However, the delegates’ admonitions did little to stop Europeans from referring to the monarch as their mythical Christian king, Prester John.
In 1456, Yaqob founded Debre Birhan after witnessing a miraculous light in the sky, which he interpreted as divine approval for his persecution of pagans. He ordered the construction of a church on the site and established an extensive palace nearby.
The light Yaqob saw has been identified by historians as Halley’s Comet, which was visible in Ethiopia in 1456.
During his reign, Yaqob took measures to greatly centralize the administrative seat of the country, bringing regions under much tighter imperial control. He ruled with an iron fist and during his later years, became more and more despotic.
When Takla Hawariat, abbot of Dabra Libanos, criticized Yaqob’s abuse of the people, Yaqob had the abbot beaten and imprisoned. Within a few months, the abbot was dead. Yaqob was extremely paranoid and was convinced his wife and children were plotting against him. He even caused the death of the mother of his son, and successor, Baeda Maryam I.
Empress Dowager Eleni
Upon his death in 1468, Baeda Maryam I assumed the throne. With his own mother dead at the hands of his father, Maryam named Dowager Eleni, a wife of his father, Queen Mother. Eleni was practically a co-monarch during Maryam’s reign as he struggled to manage the large empire his father had left him. Of particular note is her awareness of the Muslim world and its potential impact on the Christian one.
When Eskender succeeded his father, Maryam, Eleni was initially pushed out of power. However, around 1486 she participated in a palace coup that led to his deposition and execution facilitating Eleni’s return to her leading role in government.
Understanding the growing threat that Ethiopia faced from the expanding Ottoman influence in the region, Eleni sought to reconcile with the neighboring Muslim Empire of Adal. Unfortunately, negotiations fell short and Eleni was forced to enlist the aid of outsiders.
Enter the Portuguese
Towards the close of the 15th century, Portuguese Jesuit missions into Ethiopia began. Diplomat and explorer Pêro da Covilhã arrived in Ethiopia in 1490 presenting the nəgusä nägäst, Eskender, a letter from the king of Portugal addressed to Prester John. Fortunately for Eleni, Covilhã would establish positive relations between the two nations and remain there for many years.
In 1509, Empress Dowager Eleni, acting as regent to the underage Emperor Dawit II, sent an Armenian named Matthew to the king of Portugal to request his help against the Muslims. In 1520, the Portuguese fleet entered the Red Sea in compliance with this request. An embassy from the fleet also visited Emperor Dawit II (also called Lebna Dengel) and remained in Ethiopia for six years.
The Ethiopian-Adal War (1529–1543)
Between 1528 and 1540, the Adal Sultanate attempted to conquer the Ethiopian Empire under the pretext of Jihad. In 1529, an army from modern-day Somalia invaded Ethiopia. For the next fourteen years, the conflict ravaged Ethiopia with Emperor Dawit II fleeing to the mountains. From this remote location, the Empress turned to the Portuguese for military assistance against the Ottomans. João Bermudes, a member of the fleet sent in 1520, was dispatched to Lisbon with the request.
In response to Bermudes’ message, a Portuguese fleet under the command of Estêvão da Gama was sent from India and arrived in February 1541. In July, 400 musketeers marched into the interior of Ethiopia, were defeated and their commander captured and executed. The 120 soldiers who survived joined Ethiopian forces led by Dawit II’s son, Emperor Gelawdewos, and handed the Sultanate a series of defeats. As reparation for their help, Bermudes urged Emperor Gelawdewos to profess allegiance to Rome. When he refused, Bermudes was obliged to vacate the country.
Oromo Expansion
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Oromo people from northern Kenya invaded Ethiopia in waves. The migrations severely impacted the Solomonic dynasty of Abyssinia, as well as the recently weakened Adal Sultanate.
In the 17th century, Emperor Susenyos I relied on Oromo support to gain power. He even went so far as to marry an Oromo woman to seal the deal. Initial relations between the Oromo and Amhara were cordial but things soured quickly after the Emperor tried to convert the Oromo to Christianity.
Susenyos’ proselytizing efforts had the opposite effect as many Oromo gradually converted to Islam in the 17th and 18th centuries. Vestiges of this conversion can still be seen around modern-day Harar and Bale as these areas remain almost entirely Muslim to this day. The Oromo Muslims regarded the Imam of Harar to be their spiritual guide. Scholars believe the Oromo conversion served a dual purpose. It was a means of preserving their identity and a bulwark against total assimilation into Ethiopia.
The reign of Susenyos I (1606-1632)
Susenyos I (throne names: Seltan Sagad, Malak Sagad III) was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1606 to 1632. He is also known as Susenyos the Catholic.
The Jesuits who had accompanied or followed the Gama expedition into Ethiopia at the end of the 15th century were oppressed and neglected, but not expelled. At the beginning of the 17th century, Father Pedro Páez of Portugal arrived at Fremona. Father Paez was a man of great tact and judgment who soon rose into high favor at court. His court access facilitated his speedy conversion of the Emperor to his faith.
Dappling in Catholicism
Susenyos’ reign is perhaps best known as the brief period in Ethiopian history when Catholic Christianity became the official religion. Some Ethiopians consider the Emperor proclaiming Catholicism as the official state religion to be contrary to his title “Defender of the Faith”. They refuse to even acknowledge that Catholicism had ever been the state religion.
The Emperor’s interest in Catholicism was partially due to Pedro Páez’s persuasion, and partially a “conversion of convenience”. Susenyos shrewdly planned to use religion as a bargaining chip to obtain military help from Portugal and Spain.
At the time of Susenyos’ reign, Portugal and Spain were one entity, known as the Iberian Union.
Father Pedro wasted no time organizing the erection of churches, palaces, and bridges in different parts of the country. However, his successor, Afonso Mendes, was, let’s say, less charismatic and ignited the people against European influence and interference. Among those “ignited” were the Emperor’s son, Fasilides. Upon his ascension to the throne, Fasilides expelled the Jesuits, and the native religion was restored. Notably, the new emperor also established security alliances with neighboring Islamic sultanates.
Gondarine period (1632–1769)
The reign of Emperor Fasilides (1632-1667)
Fasilides (throne name: Alam Sagad) assumed the throne in 1632 ushering in the Gondarine period.
In 1636, Emperor Fasilides established Gondar as the third long-term capital of the Christian Kingdom (after Axum and Lalibela). The Emperor broke tradition and officially established a stationary royal residence there. His castle eventually grew into the complex known as the Fasil Ghebbi, or Royal Enclosure.
Fasilides also constructed several of the earliest of Gondar’s fabled 44 churches, numerous bridges across the country, and expanded the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in Axum. Gondar subsequently became the most important center of commerce for the Empire.
Fasilides’ reign also saw Gondarine nobility battle regional overlords who they fed to hyenas and crows. This was a common punishment reserved for rebellious wounded soldiers. This era was another sordid chapter in the ongoing religious conflict between Muslims and Christians in the region. However, another element was at play, as well. This era pitted feudal lords in power against the central government.
The reign of Emperor Yohannes I (1667-1682)
Upon Fasilides’ death in 1667, his son Yohannes I (throne name: A’ilaf Sagad) was appointed nəgusä nägäst by a council of senior dignitaries of the Empire. The council then proceeded to imprison the other sons of Fasilides on Mount Wehni, unbeknownst to Yohannes. This continued an age-old practice Fasilides revived when he was in power.
Mount Wehni is a mountain in Ethiopia where most of the male heirs of the Emperor were interned, usually for life. The origins and start of this practice remain unknown. However, it was customary that when the Emperor assumed the throne all his male relatives would be imprisoned. Their terms lasted until they were either called to ascend the throne or died. Mount Wehni was first used as a prison by Fasilides when he exiled his son Dawit I for leading a revolt.
Ethiopia’s isolationist ideal
Due to the violent religious controversy that Catholic missionaries had caused in Ethiopia under the reign of his grandfather, Susenyos, the Emperor acted harshly towards foreign Christians and Europeans. This sentiment persisted into the 20th century and was a factor in Ethiopia’s isolation until the mid-19th century.
Yohannes I inherited an empire encumbered with three religious entities: Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOC), Islam, and Christian foreign missionaries. He regarded Islam as a hindrance to the stability of the state and worked to strengthen Christian dominance in Ethiopia.
In 1669-70, he issued a decree ordering Muslims and Jews to move away from the Christians and form their own sectors in the city. These delineations are still recognizable today. The Muslims were relegated to Addis Alem; Ethiopian Jews, Kayla Meda; clerics of the Ethiopian church, Abun Bet; and, the nobility, Qagn Bet.
Yohannes I was known for his lenient spirit, extending amnesty to those imprisoned during his father’s reign. For this he was known as “Yohannes the Righteous”.
The reign of Iyasu I (1682-1706)
Iyasu I (throne name: Adyam Sagad) ascended to the throne upon his father’s death, Yohanne I, in 1682. Described as the last “great” Gondarine monarch, Iyasu was hailed as a brilliant military leader. He re-established control over vassals and extended his territory. Iyasu was also a “Renaissance man”, a patron of architecture, the arts, and literature.
Despite his military and political exploits, Iyasu was deposed by his son, Tekle Haymanot I, in 1706. While battling the Oromo in western Ethiopia, Iyasu learned that his favorite concubine fell ill. By the time he returned to the northwest of the country, she had died. The grief-stricken Emperor retired to an island in Lake Tana, but Ethiopian officials believed Iyasu had abdicated the throne. In his absence, they crowned his son, Tekle Haymanot, emperor. Upon hearing his son had been crowned, Iyasu marched toward Gondar in protest and was duly assassinated by his maternal uncles on Haymanot’s orders.
Some historians date the murder of Iyasu I, and the resultant decline in dynastic prestige as the beginning of the Ethiopian Zemene Mesafint “Era of the Princes”. This was a time of disorder when the power of local warlords and numerous coups challenged the power of the monarchy. Nobles abused their positions and made their own emperors. At least twenty-five emperors were deposed in the 150-year span between Iyasu I and Tewodros II.
Divine retribution: while traveling in the provinces, Emperor Tekle Haymanot was stabbed to death by some of his late father’s courtiers.
The reign of Emperor Tewoflos (1708-1711)
Emperor Tekle Haymanot succeeded his father, Iyasu I, but his reign was short-lived. He served just shy of two years before meeting the same end as his father. Following the murder of his nephew, Haymanot I, Tewoflos was released from captivity at Mount Wehni and crowned Emperor.
Tewoflos’s position was challenged by the former Queen Mother, Empress Malakotawit. When Haymanot was assassinated, Malakotawit had his four-year-old son, Na’od, crowned Emperor. The same group that was behind the assassination of his father wanted to use Na’od as a puppet king. However, Tewoflos shrewdly had several non-royals indicted for Haymanot’s murder and they were duly exiled.
Initially, Tewoflos behaved as if he would not seek revenge for the death of his brother Iyasu. In due time, he accused his late nephew Emperor Tekle Haymanot of regicide and patricide. This led to his moniker, Tekle Haymanot the Cursed. Empress Malakotawit was publicly hanged, while her two brothers were impaled. Tewoflos then ordered that all individuals who had taken part in the plot to kill his brother be hunted down and executed. It is likely due to this that Tewoflos died under suspicious circumstances.
The reign of Emperor Yostos (1711-1716)
After the death of Tewoflos, the chief nobles of Ethiopia feared a continuation of the cycle of vengeance that had plagued the reigns of both Tewoflos and Tekle Haymanot I. To avoid this likelihood, they chose one of their own, Yostos (throne name: Tsehay Sagad), as nəgusä nägäst.
Yostos had a brief, very non-descript regency. He was not up to facing challenges to his authority and only ventured out of Gondar to go hunting. When he fell ill in 1716, he was pushed aside and Dawit III was proclaimed Emperor.
The reign of Emperor Dawit III (1716-1721)
Dawit III, (throne name: Adbar Sagad), was not an easy man. When three Capuchin missionaries entered Ethiopia without imperial permission, they were tried by an ecclesiastical council and found to be heretics. The three missionaries, plus a child who accompanied them, were stoned to death just east of Gondar.
In another incident, the Emperor presided over a synod of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The issue concerned a Christology debate between the monks of the House of Ewostatewos and those of Debre Libanos. To the dismay of the monks of Debre Libanos, the Emperor sided with the Ewostathians. The monks of Debre Libanos protested the council results and, unknowingly, ignited the fury of the Emperor. Their actions irritated Dawit to the point that he sent a party of pagan Oromo from his Guard to “handle” the problem. The Oromo made quick work of it and slaughtered them all.
On the lighter side, Dawit was known for his patronage of Amharic folk songs, which earned him the moniker “Dawit the Singer.” He commissioned the building of an amusement hall, Dawit’s Hall or “The House of Song,” in the Royal Enclosure at Gondar, where he could hear minstrels perform.
Unfortunately, Dawit, like Tewoflos, died under mysterious circumstances. His courtiers and a Muslim apothecary were later accused of poisoning him and were duly executed.
The reign of Emperor Bakaffa (1721-1730)
As a member of the royal family, Bakaffa spent his childhood confined on Mount Wehni. During a period of unrest during the last year of Emperor Yostos’ reign, he escaped and went to live with the Oromo. Upon his recapture, part of his nose was cut off as punishment. The intent was to mar his countenance and disqualify him as a candidate for the throne. Despite his disfigurement, upon the death of his brother Emperor Dawit III, he was selected to succeed him as Emperor.
Upon ascending to the throne, Bakaffa immediately devoted himself to breaking the power of the feudal lords and strengthening the monarchy’s hand. He was known to travel throughout his realm in disguise seeking inequities to correct. His tactics and disguises were legendary and formed an indelible part of Ethiopian folklore. He was not the most beloved ruler due to his fear of insurrections and distrust of the nobility. However, he may be best remembered as the husband to Mentewab, his second wife.
Emperor Bakaffa had several names. His birth name was Missah; his throne name was Asma Giyorgis, which later became Masih Sagad.
Empress Mentewab
The Emperor’s second wife, Mentewab arrived as the new Empress during a troubling time. The court was suspicious and dangerous after the mysterious death of, Bakaffa’s first wife at her coronation banquet. Nevertheless, Mentewab engineered her way to power and influence under Bakaffa. She assumed a dominant role in the kingdom when Bakkafa fell ill and could no longer govern in 1728.
Empress Mentewab, also called Walatta Giyorgis, built several significant structures in and around Gondar. Most significantly she built a church dedicated to the Virgin Mary at Qusquam in the mountains outside of Gondar. The Empress also built a palace adjoining her church, which became her favored residence when she retired from political life.
The reign of Emperor Iyasu II (1730-1755)
Iyasu II ascended the throne as a child. His mother, Empress Mentewab, played a major role in his reign and that of her grandson Iyoas. Upon the succession of her son in 1730, Mentewab was crowned co-ruler (throne name: Berhan Mogassa). She held unprecedented power over the government during his reign and was also the first woman to serve in this capacity in Ethiopian history.
Mentewab was no stranger to royal life. She descended from emperors who reigned two centuries earlier.
Iyasu proved to be an ineffectual monarch preferring pleasure over handling kingdom business. He loved to embark on hunting expeditions in search of wild game, such as buffalo, rhinoceroses, and elephants. He was a fiscally irresponsible ruler, spending exorbitant amounts on embellishing the capital, paying foreign workmen, and importing luxury goods from Europe.
In a bid to gain the respect of his subjects, the Emperor embarked on a military campaign against a Sudanese sultanate. Needless to say, it did not end well revealing Iyasu’s utter incompetence in military affairs.
The Emperor fell ill in May of 1755 and died a month later. His death was deemed suspicious and many surmised he had been poisoned by the sister of Mentewab’s young lover, Melmal Iyasu. It was believed the Emperor resented Melmal so much that he had him murdered.
The reign of Emperor Iyoas I (1755-1769)
Upon Iyasu’s death, Empress Mentewab was instrumental in selecting the next Emperor. Despite his extreme youth, she nominated her grandson, Iyoas I. She intended to continue her role as Queen Mother by acting as his regent. However, there was one small problem – Iyoas’ mother, Wubit, was having none of that.
Queen Mother versus Queen Mother
After Iyasu’s death, Mentewab’s attempt to continue as Queen Mother led her into conflict with his widow, Wubit (Welete Bersabe). Wubit believed it was her turn to preside at the court of the next heir, her son Iyoas. The conflict between these two queens led to Mentewab summoning her Kwaran relatives and their forces to Gondar to support her. Wubit responded by summoning her Oromo relatives and their considerable forces to support her.
It was believed that the power struggle between the Qwarans and the Oromos was on the verge of erupting into armed conflict. Mentewab summoned her son-in-law, Ras Mikael Sehul, to mediate between the two camps. Sehul arrived with an army of 26,000 promising to mediate the dispute but instead sidelined both queens. He took control of the capital city of Gondar and assumed an increasingly dominant role.
Ultimately, Iyoas’ reign became a narrative of the struggle between the powerful nobleman Ras Mikael Sehul and the Emperor’s Oromo relatives. As Iyoas increasingly favored his relatives, his relations with Sehul began to deteriorate. The power-hungry nobleman eventually deposed Iyoas. As if deposing him was not enough, Sehul had the former Emperor killed a week later.
This was the first time an Emperor had lost his throne by a means other than natural death, death in battle, or voluntary abdication.
The designation “Ras” is a powerful non-imperial title. Ras Mikael Sehul served as governor of Tigray from 1748-1771.
Mikael Sehul had usurped the power of the Emperor. This was a notable turning point in dynastic history as power remained in the hands of the nobles and military commanders. This has been regarded as the start of the “Era of the Princes” or Zemene Mesafint.
Zemene Mesafint
The period between 1755 and 1855 was known as Zemene Mesafint or the “Era of the Princes”. It was alternatively called the “Era of Judges” for it closely resembled the era of the Old Testament judges when “there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes”. This represented a long period of political insecurity and a lack of government in the nation.
During this time, the Solomonic dynasty was reduced to little more than figureheads confined to the capital city of Gondar. The monarchy was respected in name and tolerated because of its sacred and religious character, but Oromo elite noblemen ruled in their stead.
The regional lords were tightly related by marriage and constituted a stable ruling elite. However, they were constantly at war against each other attempting to enlarge their territory. Their ultimate goal was to become the guardian of the Kings of Gondar or the ultimate authority in Ethiopia.
The end of Zemene Mesafint
The reign of Tewodros II (1855-1868)
The rule of Tewodros II is considered the end of the Zemene Mesafint era. Known as a unifier, reformer, and innovator, Kassa Hailu (throne name: Tewodros II) ascended the throne through warfare against the regional lords.
After receiving a traditional education at a local monastery, Hailu went to lead a band of bandits that roved the country in a Robin Hood-like existence. His exploits became widely known, and his band of followers grew steadily until he led a formidable army. In 1855, Hailu deposed the last Gondarine emperor, Yohannes III, and was crowned negusa nagast of Ethiopia under the name Tewodros II.
Upon assuming the throne, the new emperor faced resistance to his authority. One particularly problematic region for him was Shewa or modern-day Addis Ababa, which was ruled by a powerful dynasty at the time. In an attempt to consolidate power and enforce his authority throughout the empire, he imprisoned members of the Shewan royal family. This effectively brought the semi-independent kingdom under his control.
One of those Tewodros imprisoned was Sahle Maryam (Menelik II), the future Emperor of Ethiopia.
One of his first official acts as emperor was to break the provinces into smaller districts and assign personally appointed governors. This move greatly diminished the status of the provincial nobles and began to re-unify the nation.
Policies
Tewodros was no diplomat and used force to achieve his goals, including his reforms. He abolished slavery, reduced polygamy, centralized the administration and taxation, and even created a professional army. On the face of it, his reign seemed quite progressive and successful. His reforms and efforts won him the hearts and minds of many ordinary people, at first.
The Emperor’s efforts at creating nationwide garrisons on the backs of the already heavily taxed peasantry shifted the tide of public opinion against him. His conversion of “excess” church land for military and secular use alienated the clergy. The clergy, in turn, rallied the people against him effectively eroding the Emperor’s flailing political support among the peasantry. Such measures emboldened the regional lords who staged multiple rebellions. Additionally, the death of his beloved wife sent him into a downward spiral of violence and erratic behavior.
British invasion
The Emperor was holding Ethiopia together by the skin of his teeth and he knew it. In 1861 he conceived a bold foreign policy that he believed would bolster his kingdom and further his reforms, particularly the modernization of his army. Under his proposed policy, he and an ally would seek to destroy Islam in the region.
By 1866, Tewodros had lost control of most of the country and still had not found anyone interested in his foreign policy. Desperate for assistance, he contacted Queen Victoria of Great Britain seeking an alliance to this end.
It seems the Queen saw right through Tewodros’ scheme. When his request failed to elicit a response, he took it as a personal affront. Frustrated, he imprisoned the British envoy and missionaries to get the Queen’s attention.
The road to war
Queen Victoria wrote him requesting the release of the prisoners but Tewodros refused. With no other option, she dispatched an expedition of 12,000 British troops to Magdala in April 1868. Clearly, the Emperor now had more attention than he had ever bargained for.
Aided by rebellious nobles, such as Kassa the King of Tigray, the British soldiers attacked Tewodros’ forces. The Emperor’s dwindled army fought bravely but they were greatly outnumbered. When the Brits stormed the gate of the fortress of Magdala, Tewodros realized the hopelessness of his position. Rather than face the humiliation of being taken captive, he committed suicide.
Ironic: Tewodros committed suicide with the pistol he received as a gift from Queen Victoria when he first came to power.
While most of Tewodros’ reforms failed, they were significant as they charted the course for the rulers that followed him.
Under the Emperors Tewodros II (1855–1868), Yohannes IV (1872–1889), and Menelik II (1889–1913), the Ethiopian empire began to emerge from isolation.
The reign of Emperor Tekle Giorgis (1868-1871)
Following the death of Tewodros, another power-hungry gent, Gobeze Gebre Medhin, eyed the top seat in the nation. Considering the political climate and number of players at the time, he had his work cut out for him. Medhin was yet another rebel with a vendetta against Tewodros II and with just cause. Tewodros had his father, Wagshum Gebre Medhin, executed based solely on the suspicion he supported a prominent rebel named Agew Niguse.
Obstacles eliminated
Medhin understood he needed two things to facilitate his assumption of the throne. First, he had to get rid of Emperor Tewodros; second, he needed the support of the church. Tewodros’ suicide at the hands of the British was an unexpected gift and gaining the support of the church proved to be child’s play.
Tewodros alienated the church when he confiscated their “excess” land for military and secular use.
To regain its support, Medhin shrewdly restored the land that had been taken. This move instantly propelled him into the forefront as the favorite for the throne. With no one to stand in his way, Medhin was crowned Emperor in 1868 by the Ethiopian Echege and assumed the regnal name, Tekle Giyorgis II.
Giyorgis had secured the approval of the church but his rivals never accepted his new rank. The new Emperor was in for a brief, turbulent reign. In the Battle of Assem in 1871, he met his demise at the hands of one such rival. Giyorgis was wounded, had his mount killed under him, and was captured by the man who would succeed him as emperor, the future Yohannes IV.
Read more about Ethiopia in my next post: The History of Ethiopia – Part II
Make sure you don’t miss any posts from Soul-O-Travels.com by subscribing here: