The blending of spices is a centuries-old tradition. Ethiopian spice blends, particularly Berbere, have a rich history deeply intertwined with the region’s trade routes and culinary traditions. Influences from diverse cultures and civilizations directly impacted local flavors found along these routes.
Today, Ethiopia is a landlocked country, but two thousand years ago it was part of the Aksum kingdom. Aksum (Axum) included parts of modern-day Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Yemen, and southern Saudi Arabia. Even more important than the territories included in the Kingdom of Aksum was its proximity to the Red Sea.
The Merchants of Aksum
Axumite merchants were skilled in utilizing the monsoon winds for long-distance trade. These winds enabled travel from the Red Sea to the Arabian Sea and then to India, facilitating trade networks between Africa, Asia, and the Mediterranean. Merchants traded luxury items like emeralds, ivory, incense, exotic animals, gold, silk, salt, obsidian, and spices. These goods were highly sought after in the ancient world, facilitating trade networks across vast distances.
Spices procured from the Far East included black pepper, cardamom, chili peppers, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, nutmeg, and turmeric. As these imported spices entered local markets, experimentation led to the creation of different mixes and blends. Like many cooks, Aksumite households perfected and guarded the blends handed down to the succeeding generations.
Ethiopian cuisine, in turn, reflects a combination of indigenous grains, legumes, spices, and herbs that have been traded and refined over time.
The marketplace in Axum
The marketplace in each city we visited was a wonderful cacophony of sights, sounds, and smells. I was particularly intrigued by the spices that almost all the vendors had in abundance. As you can see from the photos, they had everything from chili peppers to dried ginger.
I think the ubiquitous chili pepper is a good starting point for any culinary exploration of Ethiopia.
Chili Peppers
Chili peppers are a cornerstone of Ethiopian cooking, particularly in the form of the spice blend berbere.
Technically, chili peppers are the fruit of the Capsicum plant, but are widely used as a spice to add flavor and heat to various cuisines. Evidence suggests the cultivation of chili peppers began in east-central Mexico around 6,000 years ago. After their origin in the Americas, chili peppers spread globally through various means, including the Columbian Exchange and European and Portuguese trade routes. Chili peppers were introduced to Ethiopia by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, likely through established trade routes. The Portuguese also played a key role in bringing chilies to India, further expanding their distribution.
Following Columbus’s voyages, chili peppers were introduced to Europe from the Americas in the late 15th century.
While I was unable to identify all the spices shown in the shot below, I identified the majority of them with a little help from my buddies Addis and Philemon. Thanks, guys!
Berbere
Berbere is a brick-red spice mixture widely used in Ethiopian and Eritrean cooking. Its history is deeply intertwined with the region’s spice trade, particularly during periods when Ethiopia controlled the Red Sea route to the Silk Road.
The word “Berbere” is derived from the Amharic word for “pepper” or “hot,” reflecting the blend’s fiery flavor.
The preparation of berbere begins by removing the seeds from chili peppers, drying them in the sun, grinding them into a powder, and then adding small portions of different herbs and spices. Typically, garlic, ginger, sacred basil, cloves, fenugreek, cumin, cayenne, coriander, and cardamom are added, but the mix is dependent on the chef’s taste. The finished product has an aroma dominated by the chilis. As you may imagine, a little goes a long way when spicing up a dish.
Turmeric
Turmeric is a root in the ginger family that originated in Southeast Asia. Root cultivation occurred in India as early as 1,000-1,500 BC. It gradually spread from India to other regions, including China by 700 AD, East Africa by 800 AD, and West Africa by 1,200 AD. By the 18th century, the roots had reached Jamaica. Turmeric has a long history of use in both traditional medicine and cuisine. Turmeric is noted for its earthy, peppery flavor and vibrant yellow color imparted by curcumin.
Besobela (sacred basil)
While besobela belongs to the same genus as common basil, the taste is entirely different. Its flavor is considered so unique that finding a perfect substitute is difficult. It has been described as having notes of sun-dried berries mingled with a peppery afterbite.
The herb is typically sun-dried and then ground; however, the dried flower heads may also be used. It is commonly referred to as Ethiopian sacred basil and is a key ingredient in niter kibbeh (spiced clarified butter), berbere blend, and shiro (a chickpea or broad bean stew). It can also be used in rubs for meat and grilled dishes.
Dried Ginger
Ginger originated in Southeast Asia, specifically in regions like southern China, the Spice Islands (present-day Indonesia), and India. Its history stretches back over 5,000 years, with the ancient Chinese and Indians using it as a medicinal and culinary ingredient. Ginger was also traded globally, becoming a valued spice in the ancient world, including Rome.
Dried ginger is a staple in Ethiopian cuisine, primarily as a key ingredient in Berbere spice blends. It also plays a significant role in dishes such as Doro Wat (spicy chicken stew) and Tibs (grilled meat). Additionally, it contributes to the flavor of kibbeh (clarified butter) and is used in various stews, sauces, and even beverages.
Sesame
The sesame plant is believed to have originated in the Harappa Valley (present-day India and Pakistan) around 5,000 years ago. Remnants of charred sesame seeds from the Indian subcontinent were discovered dating back to 3,500 BC. Sesame seeds were likely traded between Mesopotamia and the Indian subcontinent by 2,000 BC, and ancient Egyptians are known to have used the ground seeds as grain flour. The seeds were also found to have been used by the Chinese at least 5,000 years ago, and for centuries they have burned the oil to make soot for Chinese ink blocks.
Ethiopian sesame seeds, particularly those from the Humera region, are highly prized for their buttery and complex flavor. They are particularly flavorful in tahini, which is a traditional Ethiopian food known as “amara”.
Indian Long Pepper “Pippali”
Indian long pepper is the fruit of a pepper vine, with a taste similar to its cousin, black pepper. This version has a sweeter and less pungent profile with undertones of cardamom, cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon. This complex mix of heat and flavor is often used in Ethiopian dishes, such as wot.
The use of long peppers extended beyond just culinary applications. The Greek physician Hippocrates discussed its medicinal properties and used it as a medicine rather than a spice. The Greeks also used it in the creation of a mulled medicinal wine known as hippocras, which persisted until the 1500s. Long peppers were also a major Indian export for nearly 2,400 years. They owe their popularity to a chemical known as piperine, which has anti-inflammatory and anti-parasitic effects. Unsurprisingly, the fruit and root continue to be utilized in Ayurvedic medicine. While black pepper gained popularity in Europe, long peppers are still used in Ethiopian and North African cuisines.
Chickpeas
Archaeological evidence suggests that chickpeas were domesticated around 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent, particularly in southeastern Turkey and Syria. They were a staple crop in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, and were introduced to India around 300 B.C., where they became a key ingredient in dishes such as chana masala.
The ancient Greeks and Romans consumed chickpeas to improve energy and strength. They were also used for medicinal purposes to treat high blood pressure and diabetes. During World War I, chickpeas in Turkey were even used to make coffee! Today, the top producers of chickpeas are India and Australia.
“Garbanzo,” the legume’s other common name, comes from the Basque language, also known as Euskara. Basque is spoken in a region of northern Spain and Southwestern France.
The origin of the mashed chickpea dip, hummus, is hotly contested. Countries claiming to be the birthplace of the bean dip include Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Greece, and Egypt, among others. The origin of falafel (chickpea fritters) is similarly controversial. Most food historians agree that both dishes probably originated in Egypt.
In Arabic, the legumes are called “hummus”; in Indian cuisine, they’re known as “chana” or “gram”. The name “garbanzos”, common in Spanish-speaking countries, is derived from the Basque word “garbantzu”. “Garbantzu” translates to “dry seed”. The Spanish language adopted “garbantzu” as “garbanzo,” and the rest is history.
Coffee beans
Ethiopia is widely regarded as the birthplace of coffee, with a history dating back over 1,000 years. According to legend, the 9th-century goat herder Kaldi discovered the coffee plant after noticing his goats’ heightened energy after consuming the red berries.
Coffee, a Muslim drink?
Muslim traders brought coffee from Ethiopia to Yemen, where it was reportedly consumed as a beverage around the 6th century. However, the origins of consumption as a beverage are obscure. From Yemen, coffee spread into Istanbul, Cairo, and Damascus. This fueled the perception of coffee as a “Muslim” drink. This perceived connection between coffee and Islam sparked suspicion of the beverage by some Christian Ethiopians. Further reinforcing this link was Sufi Muslims’ use of coffee to stay awake during lengthy prayer sessions.
Ethiopian Christians refrained from drinking coffee until the 19th century due to its perceived association with Muslims.
In the 16th century, cultivation techniques were established, and coffee became a commercial crop. By the 1800s, coffee cultivation had evolved into a significant industry, with the country exporting substantial quantities of beans. However, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church remained steadfastly opposed to the new industry.
Coffee Drinking Banned by the Church
Sometime before the 18th century, the church banned coffee drinking. This was likely due to Muslim associations and concerns about its stimulating effects. There were also concerns that coffeehouses could potentially compete with mosques and serve as a breeding ground for free thought. This was not a direct competition for religious attendance but rather a rivalry for serving as a central gathering space for the community.
Attitudes toward coffee consumption shifted in the late 19th century. This change was influenced by figures, such as Emperor Menelik II, who reportedly drank coffee, and Abuna Matewos, an Ethiopian Archbishop who helped to dispel the belief that it was a solely Muslim drink.
Coffee Culture
Ethiopian coffee ceremonies (which I will be discussing in a later post), involving roasting, grinding, and brewing, became a central part of Ethiopian culture and society. Today, Ethiopia is the fifth-largest coffee producer in the world. The nation also ranks high for the quality and taste of its beans and grinds.
Korarima (Ethiopian cardamom)
Korarima (“Grains of Paradise”) is an endemic spice native to Ethiopia. A member of the ginger family, the spice originated in the southwestern region of the country, particularly in the Arba Minch and Basketo areas. It is used extensively in Ethiopian cuisine, being an ingredient in berbere, mitmita, and awaze spice mixes. It can also be used to flavor coffee and bread. The plant’s roots and leaves are also utilized as important combatants against soil erosion in hilly areas.
Korarima is also known as “false cardamom,” reflecting the botanical difference between it and the more common cardamom, which is widely recognized and used globally.
While called “cardamom”, korarima is distinctly different from the common spice used globally. It has a distinct flavor profile described as having a bolder, warmer taste with notes of clove, pepper, and nutmeg. It is sweeter and has a slightly citrusy taste, unlike the green version. The pods are also larger and more fig-shaped than their counterparts.
Netch Azmud
Netch Azmud is a white cumin seed that has a laundry list of names. It is also known as ajowan, bishop’s weed, and Ethiopian caraway seed. Its strong flavor is often used to balance flavors, especially in sweet or spicy dishes. Netch Azmud has a unique earthy aroma that intensifies upon cooking, so it should be used sparingly. In addition to its culinary uses, Nech Azmud is also recognized for its health benefits, including aiding digestion.
In traditional Ethiopian medicine, netch azmud is believed to possess various medicinal properties, including aiding digestion, reducing blood pressure and cholesterol, and alleviating respiratory issues.
Rue
Ruta chalepensis is the species of rue commonly used in Ethiopia. This species differs from Ruta graveolens, which is used in European cuisines. Ruta chalepensis is also known as “Tena Adam”, which translates to Adam’s health in Amharic. This name reflects its long history of use in traditional medicine as an anti-inflammatory, natural depressant, and fever reducer.
The plant is commonly used in Ethiopian culture, particularly in the coffee ceremony, where sprigs are used to flavor coffee with their aromatic oils. The dried fruits are also used in spice blends, such as Berbere and shiro.
Cumin
Not to be confused with netch azmud or white cumin discussed above. This cumin is grown in Ethiopia, especially in areas such as Arsi, Bale, Gondar, Shewa, and Wello.
Flaxseeds
Flaxseeds, known as telba in Amharic, originated in the Mediterranean region. They were traded from there into India and ultimately Ethiopia. The seeds are widely cultivated in the central highlands of the country. They are so widely cultivated that Ethiopia is now the fifth-largest producer of flaxseeds in the world. One of the most common ways flaxseeds are used is in the preparation of a traditional Ethiopian beverage also called telba. Made from toasted ground flaxseeds, water, and honey, the beverage is favored during fasting periods in the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian tradition.
Fenugreek
Fenugreek or Trigonella foenum-graecum belongs to the Fabaceae or legume family. The term foenum-graecum means ‘Greek hay’, a nod toward the use of the plant as animal fodder.
Fenugreek has a long history dating back thousands of years, with evidence of its use found in ancient cultures in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The origins of the plant have never been confirmed, but archaeologists believe it originated in the Middle East, specifically Lebanon and Syria. Alternate places of origin include southeastern Europe and India.
Fenugreek is considered one of the oldest cultivated crops, with evidence of its use dating back to 4000 BC when remains of this herb were discovered in Tell Halal, Iraq.
Historically, fenugreek has been used for culinary applications, medicinal purposes, and even as an ingredient in embalming rituals. Its seeds and leaves are still frequently used as spices in the cuisines of numerous cultures. The fragrant seeds are known by many names: methi in India, alhovla in Spain, fieno greco in Italy, hebleh in the Middle East, and bockshornklee in Germany.
Here’s a more detailed look at the history of fenugreek:
Egyptian culture
Fenugreek was utilized extensively in ancient Egyptian culture. An ancient medical text, known as the Ebers Papyrus, was discovered between the legs of a mummy in Luxor in 1862. The Papyrus contains 110 pages on anatomy, physiology, toxicology, spells, and treatments dating back to approximately 1500 BC.
This is one of the oldest medical documents detailing Egyptian medical history. The Egyptians possessed knowledge of the inner workings of the human body and structure, as well as the role of the heart and blood vessels.
Fenugreek was mentioned as a treatment for respiratory, stomach, and colon disorders, pancreatic health, liver detoxification, and as an anti-inflammatory. The seeds were also found in the tomb of the Egyptian king Tutankhamun (ruler from 1,333 BC to 1,323 BC). Not only was fenugreek used to treat ailments, but it was also used during embalming to preserve mummies and as an incense during rituals.
Greco-Roman Culture
Greek physician Hippocrates used fenugreek as a soothing herb. Ancient Greeks and Romans used the plant in cooking and to cure infections. The Romans used fenugreek to treat fevers, alleviate respiratory and intestinal issues, and to cauterize wounds.
Indian Culture
Archaeologists have pondered whether fenugreek could have originated in India. This is due to its rich history in Indian cuisine and Ayurvedic medicine.
European Culture
The plant was a staple in Medieval European monastery gardens and was also used for medicinal purposes.
Nutmeg
Nutmeg originates from the Banda Islands in Indonesia, also known as the Spice Islands. These volcanic islands were the only source of nutmeg and mace production for centuries. The spice spread to other parts of Asia, including India and Constantinople, in the 6th century AD. However, evidence of its use dates back 3,500 years.
The original price gougers
Arab traders brought nutmeg to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in the 6th century AD. To maintain high prices and control the market, the traders intentionally kept the origin secret. They supplied nutmeg through established trade routes and benefited greatly from the exclusivity and high demand.
The secrecy surrounding nutmeg’s source, combined with misinformation spread by the traders, allowed them to maintain a virtual monopoly over the trade. As the sole supplier of this hot commodity, they could and did inflate prices at will for this coveted spice. The exorbitant cost of nutmeg made it a symbol of wealth and luxury.
Nutmeg’s popularity soared during the Middle Ages as the spice was believed to have the power to cure everything from the plague and flatulence to the common cold.
Portuguese “Discovery“
The Arab hold on the trade persisted until Portuguese explorers arrived in the Banda Islands in 1512. This event marked the beginning of European intervention in the region’s spice trade. The Portuguese were followed later by the Dutch and English, who joined in procuring and exploiting the spice. This effectively broke the Arab monopoly.
Initially, the Portuguese were “granted” control over the nutmeg trade, which made it more affordable and available in Europe. In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) ousted the Portuguese and dominated the industry.
Dutch Domination, Violence, and Extinction
Through a combination of diplomatic maneuvers, military force, brutal conquest, and, ultimately, genocide, the VOC established a virtual monopoly on nutmeg and mace production. They would maintain this monopoly for almost two centuries.
Fake negotiations
The VOC attempted to negotiate exclusive trading rights with the Bandanese chiefs. However, the Bandanese preferred free trade, which allowed them to benefit from competing European merchants. When the fake negotiations failed, the Dutch resorted to force.
The Banda Massacre of 1621
Aided by Japanese mercenaries, the VOC launched a brutal campaign against the Bandanese population. The Dutch quest for control led to violent clashes and the near extinction of the local Bandanese population. An estimated 14,000 people were massacred, enslaved, or displaced, leaving approximately 1,000 survivors.
Plantation System established
Following the massacre, the VOC divided the land where nutmeg was grown into plantations, overseen by Dutch planters called perkeniers. Since they had massacred most of the Bandanese, the VOC imported enslaved laborers from other islands to work the plantations.
Maintaining the Monopoly
The VOC implemented strict measures to control the nutmeg trade, punishing anyone caught trading outside their channels. Their wickedness and greed knew no bounds as they even destroyed nutmeg trees on other islands to limit the spice supply.
Smugglers Delight
Dutch control over nutmeg cultivation came crashing down at the hands of smugglers. French horticulturalist Pierre Poivre smuggled nutmeg seedlings out of the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia) to Mauritius in 1769. Then, during the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), the British took control of the Banda Islands, disrupting Dutch control of the monopoly. When they returned the islands to the Dutch in 1817, they took nutmeg seedlings and transplanted them in their colonies, including Ceylon and Singapore. They also established nutmeg cultivation in the Caribbean, particularly in Grenada, effectively ending the Dutch monopoly.
Grenada has been given the moniker “Spice Island” or the “Isle of Spice”. This nickname is due to Grenada’s significant production of nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, and cloves.
Nigella (black cumin, Kalonji)
Nigella sativa, commonly known as black cumin, black caraway, or nigella, is native to Southwest Asia, Northern Africa, and parts of Southern Europe. It is also widely cultivated in the Middle East, particularly Syria, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia.
Role in Ancient Civilizations
Archaeological evidence indicates the use of Nigella sativa seeds in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor. Likely used for both medicinal and culinary purposes, the seeds were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun in Egypt, as well as in a Hittite flask from 2,000 BC in Turkey. The seeds were also highly prized in ancient Ethiopia, with the Negus, or Emperor, said to have been fed black seed oil to maintain vitality.
Traditional Medicine
Nigella sativa has been a key component of traditional medicine systems, like Unani, Siddha, and Ayurveda, particularly in the Middle East and parts of Asia. It is mentioned in Islamic literature as a prophetic medicine, with references in the Quran and Hadith.
The oil was used as a moisturizer, skin tightener, and treatment for eczema, burns, and rashes. Warm oil was used in a poultice to treat styes. The oil was consumed as a tonic to boost the immune system, relieve asthma, treat coughs, increase joint mobility, stimulate hair growth, and increase lactation.
Culinary Uses
Nigella sativa seeds are used to flavor dishes globally, particularly in India, the Middle East, and parts of North Africa.
Koseret
Koseret, scientifically known as Lippia abyssinica, is a herb native to Ethiopia. It is a key ingredient in Ethiopian cuisine, particularly in clarified butter (Niter Kibbeh). The herb is known for its unique, refreshing flavor with hints of mint and citrus.
Koseret is also well known as a medicinal cure-all used to treat various ailments. It was traditionally used to treat infectious diseases, skin conditions, as an anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and as a digestive aid. Koseret has even been utilized as an insecticide.
Cloves
Cloves are indigenous to the Moluccas (Spice Islands), now part of Indonesia. Like nutmeg, their history is interwoven with trade routes, wealth, and even conflict, as their unique flavor and medicinal properties made them a highly desired commodity.
Cloves are indigenous to a small group of islands within the Moluccas, specifically Ternate, Tidore, Bacan, Moti, and Makian.
Ancient Trade
Evidence suggests cloves were traded by Austronesian peoples as early as 1,500 BC, eventually becoming part of the Maritime Silk Road and the Spice Trade. Cloves were mentioned in 3rd-century BC Chinese texts from the Han Dynasty, as well as archaeological finds in Syria and Southeast Asia.
Secret Trade
For centuries, the origin of cloves was shrouded in mystery, with Arab and Chinese merchants controlling their long-distance trade to maintain high prices. Upon their arrival in Europe in the 8th century, cloves became a highly valued spice, especially in the late Middle Ages.
Once again, the Portuguese and Dutch, driven by the desire for wealth and power, sought to control the clove-producing regions in the Moluccas. This led to intense competition, including the Dutch attempting to monopolize production by destroying clove trees outside their control to limit supply.
Smugglers still smuggling
Just as they did with nutmeg, the French smuggled clove seedlings to other tropical regions in the 18th century, breaking the Dutch monopoly.
While Indonesia remains a major producer, cloves are now cultivated in various tropical regions, including Zanzibar, Madagascar, and other parts of Southeast Asia.
Cinnamon
Cinnamon originated in the tropical regions of Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) and southern China. Chinese writings reveal that the spice dates back to around 2,800 BC, and is still known as “kwai” in the Cantonese language. Evidence also suggests the spice was used in ancient Egypt as an embalming and flavoring agent as early as 2,000 BC. Cinnamon is also mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, highlighting its importance and value. Its botanical name is derived from the Hebrew and Arabic term “amomon,” meaning fragrant spice plant. The Romans used cinnamon for fumigation, in perfumery, and even during funeral rites to purify the air.
Arabian Monopoly
As they did with nutmeg and cloves, Arabs controlled the spice trade for centuries. Their control, however, was eventually diminished due to a combination of factors, including the avarice of the Europeans, as well as the shift to maritime trading.
Arabs controlled the spice trade as key middlemen for about 1,000 years, from roughly the 1st century BC to the 10th century CE.
The Greed of the Europeans
The Portuguese, driven by the desire for direct access to spices, pioneered sea routes around Africa. This circumvented the traditional routes controlled by Arab and Venetian merchants. Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India in 1498 was a key turning point, establishing a direct trade link between Europe and Asia. In the 16th and 18th centuries, the Portuguese and then the Dutch established strategically positioned trading posts throughout the Indian Ocean as they battled for control of cinnamon plantations in Sri Lanka.
These extensive maritime trading networks bypassed the traditional land and sea routes through the Middle East. This direct access to cinnamon supplies disrupted Arab trade networks, which allowed them to transport large quantities of spices directly to Europe. When the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602, they emerged as the dominant European power in the Spice Islands.
The British are Coming…and the French
The lucrative spice trade attracted the attention of the British and the French, who established their own East India Companies to compete with the Dutch and Portuguese. The British used their naval superiority and military force to establish and maintain control over key trading routes and production areas. They destroyed competing fleets and dealt viciously with local traders.
Although spices were their initial focus, the British and French soon expanded their trade to include other Asian goods, such as tea, textiles, and porcelain. By the 18th century, the British East India Company had established a powerful presence in India, outpacing its competitors.
Diversification was a great strategy
While spices remained valuable throughout the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe, their importance gradually waned as other goods, such as sugar, tea, and coffee, rose in popularity. The British East India Company’s control over India allowed it to shift its focus from spices to textiles, particularly cotton and silk, which had become all the rage in Europe. By diversifying their trade, the British established a broader economic base than the Dutch, who remained heavily dependent on the spice trade. This shift gave the British a strategic advantage, positioning them as the dominant colonial power in Asia by the late 18th century.
Mitmita
While lighter in color than berbere, mitmita is the hotter of the two. Mitmita is a less complex blend of spices, which is why it is more potent. The hottest Ethiopian chili peppers are sun-dried, then ground (including the seeds) into a fine powder. To this powder, the chef may add a bit of cardamom, cloves, salt, sacred basil, and koseret. Some blends may be a bit salty, but make no mistake, true mitmita is blazing hot.
Mitmita’s roots can be traced back to the Aksumite Empire. The Aksumites, through their access to the Silk Road, acquired spices like black pepper, cinnamon, and cardamom. The imported spices were blended with local ingredients, including chilies, to create unique flavor profiles. Mitmita remains a staple in Ethiopian and Eritrean cooking, often used as a tabletop condiment. It is particularly well-known for its role as a marinade for kitfo, a traditional Ethiopian dish of finely minced raw beef.
Now that you’re well-versed on the local spices of Ethiopia, it’s time to head to our next stop, a lovely lakeside town named Bahir Dar.
Up Next: Bahir Dar
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