The city of Axum, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is located in the Central Zone of the Tigray Region in northern Ethiopia. With a population as high as 20,000, the city served as the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Aksum. Aksum was a major trading and naval power from the 1st to the 7th centuries CE. Even within the kingdom, Axum stood out as a thriving, bustling metropolis and cultural and economic hub.
At its height, the Empire of Aksum extended across most of present-day Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Sudan, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia. From this vantage point, the Empire orchestrated trade between India and the Mediterranean. Merchants traded ivory, gold, emeralds, silk, spices, salt, exotic animals, and, unsurprisingly, slaves. The Kingdom was so powerful that it was named one of the four great powers of the time, alongside Rome, China, and Persia.
The Stelae
The Axumites placed cemeteries along the hills and plains outside the city. These cemeteries were equipped with underground burial chambers “marked” by obelisks or stelae. It is believed this practice dates back to the 3rd and 4th centuries CE. The largest stelae were royal burial chambers decorated with multi-story false windows and doors. The last monument likely erected was King Ezana’s Stele, pictured below. This, the largest remaining intact obelisk, measures 69 feet (21 meters) in height.
Excavations beneath the stelae have unearthed artifacts such as ivory, pottery, coins, glass, sculptures, and jewelry. The presence of these items confirms historical accounts of a rich trade network and cultural exchange between the Roman and Aksumite Empires. Aksum also produced coinage, further demonstrating its economic importance and stability within these networks. Coin production likely existed from the late 3rd century to the early 7th century AD.
By the late 3rd century, Axum, had begun minting its currency. It was also the first state to use the image of the cross on its coins.
The introduction of Christianity
Christianity was introduced in the early 4th century by Frumentius, a Phoenician Christian missionary and the first bishop of Axum. Frumentius converted Ezana, the ruler of Axum (320-360 AD), who then established Christianity as the official religion of the Kingdom. Frumentius is also known as Abuna (“Our Father”) and Aba Salama (“Father of Peace”).
Toward the end of the 5th century CE, a group of monks known as the Nine Saints is believed to have established themselves in the country. They fueled the spread of Christianity in Ethiopia by establishing numerous churches, including Abuna Yemata Guh (also known as the Chapel in the Sky).
The decline of Axum
The Kingdom reached its peak between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. Not long after Christianity was established, it began to decline. This decline coincided with the simultaneous rise of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula.
Lacking a detailed history, the demise of the Aksumite Kingdom was a mystery subject to numerous speculations. It had been attributed to persistent drought, overgrazing, deforestation, a plague, a shift in trade routes, or a combination of all these factors. While these all may have factored into the decline, a closer look revealed key developments that impacted Aksum’s status in the region.
Oh, the irony – the Beja people
In an ironic twist, a nomadic Cushitic ethnic group, the Beja people, set the wheels in motion toward the Aksumite decline. The territories of the Beja people had been vassalized by Aksum in the 3rd century. In the 6th century, they began to migrate east back into the area from Egypt and Sudan. Their independent lifestyles undermined the Aksumitic social hierarchy, where nobles controlled the land and, thus, the wealth.
As the Beja grew in number, they unified and began to take advantage of Aksum’s weakened state. Their strategically launched raids and invasions further destabilized the area.
Defeated in Yemen
Although Aksum had begun to decline in Ethiopia, it was recorded as still controlling part of Yemen in the 6th century CE. Around 523 CE, the Jewish king Dhu Nuwas came to power in Yemen and began a pogrom against Christians. He attacked an Aksumite garrison at Zafar in Yemen and burned all the city’s churches. He then attacked the Christian stronghold of Najran, slaughtering any Christians who refused to convert to Judaism.
Kaleb, the new king of Aksum, invaded Yemen around 525, killed Dhu Nuwas, routed his troops, and installed a Christian, Sumyafa Ashwa, as viceroy. As a result of his protection of the Christians, Kaleb is known as Saint Elesbaan.
By 570, the subjugated Himyarite King Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan sought to end Aksum’s hegemony in the region and enlisted the Persians for military aid. By 578, the Persian army had gained total control over Yemen, effectively ending Aksumite rule outside of Ethiopia.
The rise of Islam
The rise of Islam in the region was yet another important development. Arab Muslims began to commandeer naval control of the Red Sea, displacing Christian control. This disrupted Aksum’s trade routes, further weakening its economic and political power.
Mecca became a prominent trade center in the 7th century, displacing Axum. As sea trade routes became less secure, Mecca’s strategic location on key overland caravan routes became increasingly important. Mecca’s economy relied on camel caravans, alliances with nomadic tribes, and trade fairs. These fairs, which took place annually, were the time for tribes to resolve disputes, settle debts, and engage in trade.
The rise of Islam in the 7th century led to its expansion through trade routes, particularly the maritime Silk Roads.
The rise of the Islamic Empire also posed military threats to Aksum, especially as Islamic forces expanded their territory. Eventually, the Muslims took control of the Red Sea and most of the Nile, pushing Aksum into economic isolation. As international profits from its centuries-long exchange network dried up, Aksum was no longer able to control its raw material sources. With the collapse of this network came another problem.
Catastrophic Soil Erosion
Maintaining a population of 20,000 souls necessitated large-scale food production efforts. Intensified cultivation of the land to support the population resulted in a wave of soil erosion. The erosion began on a local scale circa 650 and attained catastrophic proportions within 50 years.
Aksum Abandoned
Facing raids and invasions from the Beja, the Aksumites were forced to go farther inland to the southern highlands for protection, eventually abandoning the capital. After this point, information about the Kingdom becomes extremely scarce, to the point of running silent. However, we do know that the Zagwe dynasty replaced the Aksumite dynasty in the late 10th century after several thousand Orthodox churches were targeted and burned.
The Final Nail – Aksumite Churches Burned
Around 980 AD, there is evidence of a mysterious queen who led an army to destroy the Christian faith in Aksum. Queen Gudit, also known as Yodit or Esato, sacked Aksum and burned several thousand Orthodox churches and monuments.
In the absence of historical evidence explaining her destruction of the churches, historians have surmised that she must have been of either Jewish or Muslim ethnicity. Alternatively, some believe she may have been the ruler of an entirely different ethnic group attempting to resist domination by the Christian north. Her actions and the subsequent shift in power are considered pivotal in the transition from the Aksumite to the Zagwe era in the 11th or 12th century.
The Aksumite Empire ended with King Dil Na’od who was defeated by his former general, Mara Takla Haymanot, who founded the Agaw Zagwe dynasty.
Church Assaults extended into the 16th century
The assault on the churches of Aksum did not end with Gudit. Between 1531 and 1543, the state of Adal, a neighboring Islamic power, launched jihads resulting in widespread destruction of royal churches, libraries, and monasteries. The destruction of these buildings resulted in a significant loss of historical records, further compounding the lack of information on the empire’s demise.
Day 7: November 17th – The Stelae Fields of Axum
In ancient times, seven of these granite monoliths stood together. The largest stele (The Great Stele), measuring over 108 feet (33.5 meters) high and weighing about 500 tons, fell at some point in the past. Reportedly, the engineers miscalculated the depth of the foundation required for a structure of this magnitude. They erroneously provided 2-3 meters of foundation instead of the required 14-15 meters. The collapsed stele remains in pieces on the ground to the right of the standing ones.
Stolen Property
The second-largest stela, the Obelisk of Axum, measured approximately 79 feet (24 meters) in height and weighed 160 tons. However, this one was seized on the personal order of dictator Benito Mussolini during the Italian occupation during World War II.
The obelisk was in three half-buried fragments when the Italians removed it. The damage was the result of a 16th-century Muslim invasion. To facilitate transportation to Rome, the stele was cut into five sections. Upon arrival in Rome, it was restored with metal rods embedded in concrete and erected near the Circus Maximus.
The Obelisk of Axum, also known as King Ezana’s Stele or Stele #2, is estimated to be around 1,700 years old.
The Ethiopian government lobbied for years to have the stele returned. In 2005, 68 years after being stolen, the obelisk was returned to Ethiopia and erected at its original site. The third-largest stela, measuring 75 feet (23 meters), still stands in Axum.
Not far from the stelae field is the Swimming Pool of the Queen of Sheba. Despite the colourful legends, this large reservoir probably wasn’t where the Queen came to bathe while in Ethiopia. It was, however, an important reservoir.
There is no way to confirm its age, but it has served as an important water source for millennia. The size of the pool is impressive, but even more so considering it was hewn from solid rock. The “bath” is also known as Mai Shum, which translates to “Chief’s Water”. Like Fasilides’ Bath in Gondar, the pool is also used for Timkat celebrations.
St. Mary Tsion Church
The original church is believed to have been built in the 4th century during the reign of Ezana. You may recall that Ezana was the first Christian ruler of Aksum mentioned earlier in this post.
The new building is a mere stone’s throw away from the old building (also known as the Chapel of the Tablet). The old church is said to house the biblical Ark of the Covenant.
The Ark of the Covenant
In the Bible, the Ark of the Covenant was a sacred, gold-covered chest built by the Israelites according to God’s instruction. The Ark was constructed specifically to house the Ten Commandments tablets. It also contained a jar of manna, the food God provided the Israelites in the desert, and Aaron’s staff that budded, symbolizing his priesthood. The Ark also symbolized God’s presence and the place where He would meet with His people.
The Guardian of the Ark
As the Ark is a sacred relic, it commands a special reverence and protection. Traditionally in Ethiopia, this task has been entrusted to a single male guardian who must be a virgin. His sexual purity is required to ensure the Ark’s sanctity and freedom from possible “contamination”. This practice is rooted in interpretations of the Bible and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo church beliefs.
From biblical times, this guardian must be a member of the priestly tribe, known as the Levites. This tribe was specifically tasked with carrying and maintaining the Ark. However, while Orthodox Tewahedo tradition stipulates the priest must be a virgin, there is no such requirement for the priest outlined in the Jewish and Christian scriptures.
No Women Allowed
The Old Church is dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Oddly, despite this dedication, women are not allowed to enter the building. When I asked why women were forbidden, I was told it was specifically because the church houses the Ark (also called the Tabot). The restrictions on women entering the Old Church are believed to be based on interpretations of the Old Testament, particularly concerning the Ark’s sanctity and the roles of priests in the ancient temple.
In Catholic theology, the Ark is considered a symbol of the Virgin Mary. The Ark symbolized God’s presence and housed holy objects in the Old Testament. In the New Testament, Mary, the mother of Jesus, is seen as the divine dwelling place of God’s presence.
This is not the original building
The church has been rebuilt several times. Its first putative destruction is thought to have occurred during the 10th century. Unfortunately, there are no records to support this claim. The second, and first confirmed, destruction happened in the 16th century at the hands of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. Between 1528 and 1540, the Adal Sultanate attempted to conquer the Ethiopian Empire under the pretext of Jihad during the Ethiopian-Adal War (1529-1543). Many churches were destroyed or badly damaged during this period. In 1635, St. Mary of Tsion was reconstructed by Emperor Fasilides and remains to this day.
Why destroy churches?
The burning of churches in Ethiopia by sultanates like Adal was primarily driven by religious persecution and a desire to expand Islamic dominance. The Ifat Sultanate, for instance, saw the destruction of churches as part of their broader goal of conquering Ethiopia and imposing Islamic rule. For Ethiopians, the destruction and rebuilding of the churches became symbolic. Surrounded by Islamic countries, invaded several times, and standing on the brink of extinction, Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity regards itself as a bastion against Islam.
St. Mary Tsion in history
The church of Saint Mary of Zion was the traditional place where Ethiopian Emperors came to be crowned. If an Emperor was not crowned at Axum, or did not at least have his coronation ratified by a special service at St. Mary of Zion, he could not be referred to by the title of “Atse”. Atse is an Amharic word that translates to “emperor”. The Atse was traditionally referred to as Nəgusä Nägäst or “King of Kings.”
Sad Fact: In mid-December 2020 during the Tigray War, 750 people hiding in the church were killed by militants.
The new St. Mary’s
To mark his Silver Jubilee, in 1955, Emperor Haile Selassie founded a new Church of St. Mary of Zion. The new church was constructed a stone’s throw away from the old one. Upon its completion in 1964, the Emperor interrupted Queen Elizabeth II’s state visit to attend the dedication. The British monarch herself visited a few days later. Unlike the original St. Mary of Tsion, the new St. Mary of Zion admits women. In 1965, Emperor Selassie built a relic chapel next to the old building. Church treasures and the revered Ark of the Covenant are housed in this structure.
The marketplace
Our next and final stop for the day was the marketplace. A wonderful cacophony of sights, sounds, and smells. I was particularly intrigued by the spices that almost all the vendors had in abundance. They had everything from the Berbere mixes to dried ginger. There were even vendors hawking fried delicacies from mobile units. I will delve deeper into the spices I encountered at the market and their use in Ethiopian cooking in a later post.
You could get almost anything at the market. From live produce right down to jebenas, the pots used to brew coffee in the ubiquitous coffee ceremony, it was all for sale. After perusing the offerings at the market, we retired to the hotel to pack up, rest, and prepare for our morning flight to the next stop on our itinerary, Bahir Dar.
Up Next: The Ethiopian spice rack
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